The final part of our Psychology and Crime glossary, this includes letters S - Z. Remember, you can download the entire file from here.
S
Schema -
A cognitive structure into which knowledge is organised in order to make sense of objects, people and situations in the world.
Self-fulfilling Prophecy -
A prediction that comes true because it has been made. Related to labelling theory.
Self-serving Attribution Bias -
The tendency to attribute our successed to dispositional factors and our failures to situational ones.
Situational Attribution -
Attributing someone's behaviour to factors external to them.
Social Cognition -
The process by which we make sense of other people and their actions.
Social Learning Theory -
The view that behaviour is primarily leaned from observations of models.
Social Skills Training -
An attempt to reduce aggressive behaviour by equippig offenders with the skills to manage interactions more effectively.
Socio-economic Status (SES) -
A way of classifying people in terms of their occupational background and economic circumstances. Low SES generally implies manual or semi/unskilled occupation, lower income and fewer years in education, high SES the converse.
Somatotype -
Bodily build, classified as endomorph (at), ectomorph (thin), and mesomorph (muscular). According to some early theorists, such as Sheldon, different personality types are associated with the different somatotypes.
Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) -
In the US, a branch of the police force involved mainly in special operations, such as hostage-taking incidents.
Standard Interview Procedure -
The usual method by which police interviews are conducted.
Story Order -
An evidence strategy in which witnesses appear in the sequence in which events occurred. Considered more effective than witness order.
T
Television Technique -
A hypnotic techinque in which a witness is encouraged to imagine an event as it seen on television.
Testosterone -
A male sex hormone the main role of which is to promote sexual development and behaviour. However, it may also influence a range of other behaviours including aggression.
Token Economy -
An attempt to reduce offending behaviour by selectively reinforcing desirable behaviours within an institution.
V
VICAP -
The Violent Criminal Apprehension Programmed. An FBI database of violent offences used to generate offender profiles.
Victim Derogation -
The tendency to blame a victim for their own misfortune. Related to belief in a just world.
Victimisation Survey -
A technique for measuring the crime rate which, instead of relying on crime statistics as reported by the police, surveys a sample of the population about their experiences of crime. Victimisation surveys typically reveal a higher incidence of crime than police figures.
Violence Distraction -
The tendency for witnesses of violent events to provide poorer testimony than witnesses of non-violent events, either because of the detrimental effect of arousal on memory or possibly due to weapon focus.
W
Weapon Focus -
The tendency for witnesses of violent crimes to focus on the weapon used, generally resulting in poorer recall of other aspects of the event.
Witness Order -
An evidence strategy in which witnessess appear in the order deemed most likely to persuade a jury. Considered less effective than story order.
Z
Zero Tolerance -
An approach to the prevention of serious crime based on vigorous police response to minor infractions of the law.
Wednesday, January 14, 2009
Glossary - Part J, L, M, O, P, R
This is the third installment of the Psychology for Crime glossary and covers letters J - R. Remember, you can download the entire file from here.
J
Juror Bias Scale -
A technique for measuring the degree of prejudice and bias in potential jurors.
Just World Hypothesis -
The belief, held by some people, that the world is a fair and just place in which people deserve the things that happen to them.
L
Labelling Theory -
The view that the label that is applied to an individual by others (e.g. 'criminal') can influence their behaviour.
Locus of Control -
The extent to which a person feels they are in charge of their own destiny.
M
Marauder -
An offender who operates from a home base.
Maternal Deprivation Theory -
The view, associated with the work of John Bowlby, that deviant behaviour in adulthood is the result of separation from the attachment figure early in life.
Model -
In social learning theory (SLT), a person whose behaviour is observed in order to learn it.
Monozygotic Twins -
Identical twins, who share 100% of their genetic information.
O
Offender Profiling -
The use of crime scene evidence to make educated guesses about the likely characteristics of an offender.
P
Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) -
An act of Parliament passed in 1984 that, amongst other things, limited the ways in which police interrogations can be carried out.
Prevalence of Crime -
The number of people in the population involved in committing crimes. Variations in the crime rate can be the result of variations in prevalence (e.g. more people committing crimes) or incidence (e.g. the same number of people committing more crimes).
Psycho-legal Studies -
A branch of forensic psychology concerned with lagal processses such as jury decision making.
Psychological Autopsy -
The use of crime scenes and psychological evidence to work out possible causes of death.
Psychometric Testing -
The measurement of psychological characteristics, usually through the use of questionnaires or inventories. Such tests may concern intelligence (IQ) or personailty and generally yieldnumerical measurements of the attribute being investigated.
Psychopath -
An individual who appears to lack anxiety and guilt and is typically prone to impulsive and aggressive behaviour. Such individuals are likely to became involed in crimes although it should be stressed that not all psychopaths become criminals.
R
Rational Choice Theory (RCT) -
An approach to understanding criminality that emphasises the role of rational processes in the decision to commit a crime.
Reconstructive Memory -
The view that memories, rather than being accurate accounts of events, are 'imaginative reconstructions' based on schematic knowledge.
J
Juror Bias Scale -
A technique for measuring the degree of prejudice and bias in potential jurors.
Just World Hypothesis -
The belief, held by some people, that the world is a fair and just place in which people deserve the things that happen to them.
L
Labelling Theory -
The view that the label that is applied to an individual by others (e.g. 'criminal') can influence their behaviour.
Locus of Control -
The extent to which a person feels they are in charge of their own destiny.
M
Marauder -
An offender who operates from a home base.
Maternal Deprivation Theory -
The view, associated with the work of John Bowlby, that deviant behaviour in adulthood is the result of separation from the attachment figure early in life.
Model -
In social learning theory (SLT), a person whose behaviour is observed in order to learn it.
Monozygotic Twins -
Identical twins, who share 100% of their genetic information.
O
Offender Profiling -
The use of crime scene evidence to make educated guesses about the likely characteristics of an offender.
P
Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) -
An act of Parliament passed in 1984 that, amongst other things, limited the ways in which police interrogations can be carried out.
Prevalence of Crime -
The number of people in the population involved in committing crimes. Variations in the crime rate can be the result of variations in prevalence (e.g. more people committing crimes) or incidence (e.g. the same number of people committing more crimes).
Psycho-legal Studies -
A branch of forensic psychology concerned with lagal processses such as jury decision making.
Psychological Autopsy -
The use of crime scenes and psychological evidence to work out possible causes of death.
Psychometric Testing -
The measurement of psychological characteristics, usually through the use of questionnaires or inventories. Such tests may concern intelligence (IQ) or personailty and generally yieldnumerical measurements of the attribute being investigated.
Psychopath -
An individual who appears to lack anxiety and guilt and is typically prone to impulsive and aggressive behaviour. Such individuals are likely to became involed in crimes although it should be stressed that not all psychopaths become criminals.
R
Rational Choice Theory (RCT) -
An approach to understanding criminality that emphasises the role of rational processes in the decision to commit a crime.
Reconstructive Memory -
The view that memories, rather than being accurate accounts of events, are 'imaginative reconstructions' based on schematic knowledge.
Glossary - Part D, E, F, G, H, and I
This is the second part of the Psychology and Crime gloassayr, and will contain the letters D - I. Remember you can download the entire glossary from here.
D
Dark Figure -
The proportion of crimes that are committed but which are not detected by official crime statistics.
Defensible Space -
Areas (for example, of a residential development) that appear to belong to someone, having clear boundaries against outsiders and characterised by high levels of natural surveillance.
Demand Characteristics -
The cues that are present in an experimental situation that particpants may use in order to work out the experimental aim. There is a danger that participants may alter their behaviour in response to demand characteristics, invalidating the experiment.
Deterministic -
Describes any theory which suggests that people do not have freedom of choice over their actions.
Deviance Amplification -
The tendency of media sources to 'over-report' certain types of crime (e.g. murder), potentially leading members of the public to have an exaggerated idea of the frequency of such crimes.
Dispositional Attribution -
Attributing someone's behaviour to factors internal to them (e.g. personality).
Dizygotic Twins -
Non-identical twins, sharing the same amount of genetic information as any two siblings.
DNA Profiling -
The use of DNA evidence from crime scenes to identify offenders, link different crimes and eliminate suspects from an enquiry.
DSM-III-R -
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychological Disorders (third edition, revised). A widely used scheme for classifying and diagnosing psychological disorders, now superseded by DSM-IV.
E
Ecological Validity -
The extent to which an experimental situation resembles the real-life situation to which researchers wish to generalise. Research that is low in ecological validity may not generalise well to real-life situations.
Evidential -
Relating to evidence as presented in court.
Expert Evidence -
Legal evidence from an acknowledged expert which is given particular weight because of their expertise.
Extra-evidential -
Relating to factors (e.g. the appearance of the defendant) other than the evidence presented in courts.
F
Forensic Hypnosis -
The use of hypnotic techniques in an attempt to improve witness reliabilty.
Forensic Psychology -
The application of psychological research to the legal system.
Fundamental Attribution Bias -
The tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviour and dispositional ones for others' behaviour.
H
Hedonic Relevance -
A phenomenon whereby our attributions change depending on the degree of relevance a situation has for us.
I
Incidence of Crime -
The number of crimes that are committed.
Inquisitorial System -
An alternative trial procedure to the adversarial system, in which the presiding judge(s) controls proceedings, examines eyewitnesses and directs the gathering of evidence.
Interrogation -
A police interview carried out for the express purpose of extracting a confession from a suspect.
Investigative Psychology -
The application of psychological principles to analyse crimes and apprehend offenders.
D
Dark Figure -
The proportion of crimes that are committed but which are not detected by official crime statistics.
Defensible Space -
Areas (for example, of a residential development) that appear to belong to someone, having clear boundaries against outsiders and characterised by high levels of natural surveillance.
Demand Characteristics -
The cues that are present in an experimental situation that particpants may use in order to work out the experimental aim. There is a danger that participants may alter their behaviour in response to demand characteristics, invalidating the experiment.
Deterministic -
Describes any theory which suggests that people do not have freedom of choice over their actions.
Deviance Amplification -
The tendency of media sources to 'over-report' certain types of crime (e.g. murder), potentially leading members of the public to have an exaggerated idea of the frequency of such crimes.
Dispositional Attribution -
Attributing someone's behaviour to factors internal to them (e.g. personality).
Dizygotic Twins -
Non-identical twins, sharing the same amount of genetic information as any two siblings.
DNA Profiling -
The use of DNA evidence from crime scenes to identify offenders, link different crimes and eliminate suspects from an enquiry.
DSM-III-R -
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychological Disorders (third edition, revised). A widely used scheme for classifying and diagnosing psychological disorders, now superseded by DSM-IV.
E
Ecological Validity -
The extent to which an experimental situation resembles the real-life situation to which researchers wish to generalise. Research that is low in ecological validity may not generalise well to real-life situations.
Evidential -
Relating to evidence as presented in court.
Expert Evidence -
Legal evidence from an acknowledged expert which is given particular weight because of their expertise.
Extra-evidential -
Relating to factors (e.g. the appearance of the defendant) other than the evidence presented in courts.
F
Forensic Hypnosis -
The use of hypnotic techniques in an attempt to improve witness reliabilty.
Forensic Psychology -
The application of psychological research to the legal system.
Fundamental Attribution Bias -
The tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviour and dispositional ones for others' behaviour.
H
Hedonic Relevance -
A phenomenon whereby our attributions change depending on the degree of relevance a situation has for us.
I
Incidence of Crime -
The number of crimes that are committed.
Inquisitorial System -
An alternative trial procedure to the adversarial system, in which the presiding judge(s) controls proceedings, examines eyewitnesses and directs the gathering of evidence.
Interrogation -
A police interview carried out for the express purpose of extracting a confession from a suspect.
Investigative Psychology -
The application of psychological principles to analyse crimes and apprehend offenders.
Glossary Part 3
Finally, P - T of the glossary. All the terms come from the glossary of this book. Remember, you can download the entire glossary from here.
P
Periodicity -
The regular recurrence of the properties of elements when they are arranged in atomic number order as in the Periodic Table.
Period -
A horizontal row of elements in the Periodic Table. There are trends in the properties of the elements as we cross a period.
Propagation -
One of the steps of a chain reaction in which a free radical converts reactant into product and another free radical is formed which can take part in another propagation step.
Proton -
A positively charged sub-atomic particle found in the nuclei of atoms.
R
Redox -
Short for reduction-oxidation, it describes reactions in which electrons are transferred from one species to another.
Reducing Agent -
A reagent that reduces (adds electron to) another species.
Reduction -
A reaction in which an atom or group of atoms gains electrons.
S
Shielded Nuclear Charge -
(also called effective nuclear charge). The positive charge from the nucleus that is felt by the outer electrons of an atom - it is the total number of positive charges on the nucleus of an atom minus the total number of inner electrons.
Specific Heat Capacity, c -
The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1g of substance by 1K.
Spectator Ions -
Ions that are unchanged during a chemical reaction i.e. they take no part in the reaction.
Standard Molar Enthalpy Change of Combustion -
The amount of heat energy given out when 1 mole of a substance is completely burned in oxygen at standard conditions (298K and 100kPa).
Standard Molar Enthalpy Change of Formation -
The heat change when 1 mole of substance is formed from its elements at standard conditions (298K and 100kPa).
Stoichiometric -
Describes the simple whole number ratios in which chemical species react.
Strong Nuclear Force -
The force that holds protons and neutrons together whithin the nucleus of an atom.
T
Termination -
The stage of a chain reaction in which two free radicals combine together to give a species that is not a free radical.
Thermal Decomposition -
The breakdown of a compound by heat.
Thermochemical Cycle -
A sequence of chemical reactions (with their enthalpy changes) that convert a reactant into a product. The total enthalpy change of the sequence of reactions will be the same as that for the conversion of the reactant to the prduct directly (or by any other route).
P
Periodicity -
The regular recurrence of the properties of elements when they are arranged in atomic number order as in the Periodic Table.
Period -
A horizontal row of elements in the Periodic Table. There are trends in the properties of the elements as we cross a period.
Propagation -
One of the steps of a chain reaction in which a free radical converts reactant into product and another free radical is formed which can take part in another propagation step.
Proton -
A positively charged sub-atomic particle found in the nuclei of atoms.
R
Redox -
Short for reduction-oxidation, it describes reactions in which electrons are transferred from one species to another.
Reducing Agent -
A reagent that reduces (adds electron to) another species.
Reduction -
A reaction in which an atom or group of atoms gains electrons.
S
Shielded Nuclear Charge -
(also called effective nuclear charge). The positive charge from the nucleus that is felt by the outer electrons of an atom - it is the total number of positive charges on the nucleus of an atom minus the total number of inner electrons.
Specific Heat Capacity, c -
The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1g of substance by 1K.
Spectator Ions -
Ions that are unchanged during a chemical reaction i.e. they take no part in the reaction.
Standard Molar Enthalpy Change of Combustion -
The amount of heat energy given out when 1 mole of a substance is completely burned in oxygen at standard conditions (298K and 100kPa).
Standard Molar Enthalpy Change of Formation -
The heat change when 1 mole of substance is formed from its elements at standard conditions (298K and 100kPa).
Stoichiometric -
Describes the simple whole number ratios in which chemical species react.
Strong Nuclear Force -
The force that holds protons and neutrons together whithin the nucleus of an atom.
T
Termination -
The stage of a chain reaction in which two free radicals combine together to give a species that is not a free radical.
Thermal Decomposition -
The breakdown of a compound by heat.
Thermochemical Cycle -
A sequence of chemical reactions (with their enthalpy changes) that convert a reactant into a product. The total enthalpy change of the sequence of reactions will be the same as that for the conversion of the reactant to the prduct directly (or by any other route).
Glossary Part 2
F - O of the Chemistry Glossary. All the terms come from the gloassary of this book. Remember, you can download the entire glossary from here.
F
Free Radical -
A reagent that has an unpaired electron.
G
General Formula -
The formula of a family of organic compounds expressed by using n to represent the number of carbon atoms.
Giant Molecular Structure -
An arrangment of atoms covalently bonded together in such a way that the structure extends indefinetely in 3 dimensions.
Giant Structure -
An arrangement of atoms or ions bonded together in such a way that the structure extends indefinetely in 3 dimensions.
Group -
A vertical column of elements in the Periodic Table. The elements have similar properties because they have the same outer electron arrangement.
Heterolysis -
Describes the breaking down of a covalent bond such that both the electrons in the bond go to one of the atoms and none to the other. The process results in the formation of a positive ion and a negative ion.
Homologous Series -
A set of organic compounds with the same functional group. The compounds differ in the length of their hydrocarbon chains.
Homolysis -
Describes the breaking of a covalent bond such that one of the electrons in the bond goes to one of the formation of a pair of free radicals.
I
Initiation -
The first step of a chain reactions in which a pair of free radicals is formed by bond homolysis.
Intermolecular Forces -
Forces that act between molecules and atoms that are not covalently bonded together (van der Waals forces, dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonding).
Ionic Bonding -
A type of bonding between metals and non-metals that is the result of the attraction between the positive metal ions and negative non-metal ions, formed from the transfer of electrons.
Ionisation Energy -
The energy required to remove a mole of electrons from a mole of isolated gaseous atoms.
Ions -
Atoms or molecules that have an overall electrical charge.
Isotopes -
Atoms of the same element (i.e. having the same number of protons) but having different numbers of neutrons.
K
Ketone -
An organic compound inwhich there is a C=O double bond.
L
Leaving Group -
In an organic substitution reaction, the leaving group is an atom or group of atoms that is ejected from the starting material, normally taking with it an electron pair and forming a negative ion.
Lone Pair -
A pair of electrons that is not involved in bonding, in the outer shell of an atom. Also called an unshared pair.
M
Mass Number (or Nucleon Number) -
The total number of neutrons and protons (nucleons) in the nucleus of an atom.
Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution -
The distribution of energies (and therefore speeds) of the molecules in a gas or liquid.
Metallic Bonding -
A type of bonding found in metals in which positively charged metal ions are held together by their attraction to their pooled sea of outer electrons.
Molecular Formula -
A formula that tells us the numbers of atoms of different elements that make up a molecule of a compound.
Molecular Orbitals -
Volumes of space in which electrons may be found. They spread over two (or more) atoms.
Molecular Structure -
A compound that consists of small molecules.
Molecule -
A small group of atoms held together by covalent bonds.
Monomer -
A small molecule that combines with many other monomers to form a polymer.
N
Neutron -
An uncharged sub-atomic particle found in the nuclei of atoms.
Nucleons -
Protons and neutrons - the sub-atomic particles found in the nuclei of atoms.
Nucleophilic Substitution -
An organic reaction in which a molecule with a partially positively charged carbon atom is attacked by a reagent with a negative charge (a nucleophile). It results in the replacement of one of the groups or atoms on the orginal molecule by the nucleophile.
Nucleus -
The tiny, positively charged centre of an atom composed of protons and neutrons.
O
Orbital -
A volume of space in which an electron or pair of electrons may be found.
Oxidation -
A reaction in which an atom or group of atoms loses electrons.
Oxidation Number -
The number of electrons lost or gained by an atom in a compound compared to the uncombined atom. It forms the basis of a way of keeping track of redox (electron transfer) reactions.
Oxidation State -
An alternative term for oxidation number.
Oxidising Agent -
A reagent that oxidises (removes electron from) another species.
Oxidising Power -
The ability of a reagent to oxidise (remove electron from) another species.
F
Free Radical -
A reagent that has an unpaired electron.
G
General Formula -
The formula of a family of organic compounds expressed by using n to represent the number of carbon atoms.
Giant Molecular Structure -
An arrangment of atoms covalently bonded together in such a way that the structure extends indefinetely in 3 dimensions.
Giant Structure -
An arrangement of atoms or ions bonded together in such a way that the structure extends indefinetely in 3 dimensions.
Group -
A vertical column of elements in the Periodic Table. The elements have similar properties because they have the same outer electron arrangement.
Heterolysis -
Describes the breaking down of a covalent bond such that both the electrons in the bond go to one of the atoms and none to the other. The process results in the formation of a positive ion and a negative ion.
Homologous Series -
A set of organic compounds with the same functional group. The compounds differ in the length of their hydrocarbon chains.
Homolysis -
Describes the breaking of a covalent bond such that one of the electrons in the bond goes to one of the formation of a pair of free radicals.
I
Initiation -
The first step of a chain reactions in which a pair of free radicals is formed by bond homolysis.
Intermolecular Forces -
Forces that act between molecules and atoms that are not covalently bonded together (van der Waals forces, dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonding).
Ionic Bonding -
A type of bonding between metals and non-metals that is the result of the attraction between the positive metal ions and negative non-metal ions, formed from the transfer of electrons.
Ionisation Energy -
The energy required to remove a mole of electrons from a mole of isolated gaseous atoms.
Ions -
Atoms or molecules that have an overall electrical charge.
Isotopes -
Atoms of the same element (i.e. having the same number of protons) but having different numbers of neutrons.
K
Ketone -
An organic compound inwhich there is a C=O double bond.
L
Leaving Group -
In an organic substitution reaction, the leaving group is an atom or group of atoms that is ejected from the starting material, normally taking with it an electron pair and forming a negative ion.
Lone Pair -
A pair of electrons that is not involved in bonding, in the outer shell of an atom. Also called an unshared pair.
M
Mass Number (or Nucleon Number) -
The total number of neutrons and protons (nucleons) in the nucleus of an atom.
Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution -
The distribution of energies (and therefore speeds) of the molecules in a gas or liquid.
Metallic Bonding -
A type of bonding found in metals in which positively charged metal ions are held together by their attraction to their pooled sea of outer electrons.
Molecular Formula -
A formula that tells us the numbers of atoms of different elements that make up a molecule of a compound.
Molecular Orbitals -
Volumes of space in which electrons may be found. They spread over two (or more) atoms.
Molecular Structure -
A compound that consists of small molecules.
Molecule -
A small group of atoms held together by covalent bonds.
Monomer -
A small molecule that combines with many other monomers to form a polymer.
N
Neutron -
An uncharged sub-atomic particle found in the nuclei of atoms.
Nucleons -
Protons and neutrons - the sub-atomic particles found in the nuclei of atoms.
Nucleophilic Substitution -
An organic reaction in which a molecule with a partially positively charged carbon atom is attacked by a reagent with a negative charge (a nucleophile). It results in the replacement of one of the groups or atoms on the orginal molecule by the nucleophile.
Nucleus -
The tiny, positively charged centre of an atom composed of protons and neutrons.
O
Orbital -
A volume of space in which an electron or pair of electrons may be found.
Oxidation -
A reaction in which an atom or group of atoms loses electrons.
Oxidation Number -
The number of electrons lost or gained by an atom in a compound compared to the uncombined atom. It forms the basis of a way of keeping track of redox (electron transfer) reactions.
Oxidation State -
An alternative term for oxidation number.
Oxidising Agent -
A reagent that oxidises (removes electron from) another species.
Oxidising Power -
The ability of a reagent to oxidise (remove electron from) another species.
Sunday, January 11, 2009
Glossary
A - E of a Chemistry Glossary. All the terms come from the gloassary of this book. You can download the entire glossary file from here.
A
Activation Energy -
The minimum energy that a particle needs in order to react: the energy (enthalpy) difference between the reactants and the transition state.
Aldehyde -
An organic compound with the general formula RCHO in which there is a C=O double bond.
Allotropes -
Pure elements which can exist in different physical forms in which their atoms are arranged differently. For example, diamond, graphite and buckminsterfullerene are allotropes of carbon.
Anions -
Negatively charged ions.
Atomic Number (Proton Number) -
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Also the order of an element in the Periodic Table.
Average Bond Enthalpy -
The amount of enthalpy (energy) that has to be put in to break a specicfied chemical bond. It is an average value for the specified bond in a number of different compounds.
B
Biodegradeable -
A substances is biodegradeable if it breaks down naturally in the environment under the action of microorganisms, enzymes etc
C
Calorimeter -
An instrument for measuring the heat changes that accompany chemical reactions.
Carbanion -
An organic ion in which one of the carbon atoms has a negative charge.
Carbocation -
An organic ion in which one of the carbon atoms has a positive charge.
Carboxylic Acids -
Organic compounds with the general formula RCOOH in which there is a C=O double bond and an -OH group on the same carbon atom.
Catalytic Cracking -
The breaking, with the aid of a catalyst, of long-chain alkane molecules (obtained from crude oil) into shorter chain hydrocarbons, some of which are alkenes.
Cations -
Positively charged ions.
Chain Reaction -
A reaction with several steps involving free radicals.
Complex Ions -
Ions with more than one atom covalently bonded together.
Coordinate Bonding -
Covalnet bonding in which both the electrons in the bond come from one of the atoms in the bond (also called dative covalent bonding).
Cracking -
The breaking of long-chain alkane molecules (obtained from crude oil) into shorter chain hydrocarbons, some of which are alkenes.
Covalent Bonding -
A type of bonding between non-metal atoms that is the result of electrons being shared between the atoms.
D
Dative Covalent Bonding -
Covalent bonding in which both the electrons in the bond come from one of the atoms in the bond (also called coordinate bonding).
Disproportionation -
Describes a redox reaction in which the oxidation number of some atoms of a particular element increases and that of other atomsof the same element decreases.
E
Electron -
A negatively charged sub-atomic particle that is found at some distance from the nucleas of an atoms.
Electron Pair Repulsion Theory -
A theory which explains the shapes of simple molecules by assuming that groups of electrons around a central atom repel each other and thus take up positions as far away as posible from each other in space.
Electronegativity -
The ability of an atom to attract the electrons in covalent bonds towards itself.
Electrophile -
A reagent that attacks electron-rich areas in an organic molecule (such as carbon-carbon double bond).
Electrostatic Forces -
The forces of attraction and repulsion between electrically charged particles.
Elimination Reaction -
A reaction in which a small molecule such as water or hydrogen chloride is ejected from the reactants.
Empirical Formula -
The simplest whole number ratio in which the atoms in a compound combine together.
Endothermic -
Describes a reaction in which heat is taken in as the reactants change to products - the temperature thus drops.
Energy Density -
Describes the amount of energy stored per kilogram by a fuel. This energy can be released by burning the fuel.
Enthalpy Diagrams -
Diagrams in which the enthalpies (energies) of the reactants and products of a chemical reaction are plotted on a vertical scale to show their relative levels.
Entity -
The simplest forumla unit of a compound.
Exothermic -
Describes a reaction in which heat is given out as the reactants change to products - the temperature thus rises.
A
Activation Energy -
The minimum energy that a particle needs in order to react: the energy (enthalpy) difference between the reactants and the transition state.
Aldehyde -
An organic compound with the general formula RCHO in which there is a C=O double bond.
Allotropes -
Pure elements which can exist in different physical forms in which their atoms are arranged differently. For example, diamond, graphite and buckminsterfullerene are allotropes of carbon.
Anions -
Negatively charged ions.
Atomic Number (Proton Number) -
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Also the order of an element in the Periodic Table.
Average Bond Enthalpy -
The amount of enthalpy (energy) that has to be put in to break a specicfied chemical bond. It is an average value for the specified bond in a number of different compounds.
B
Biodegradeable -
A substances is biodegradeable if it breaks down naturally in the environment under the action of microorganisms, enzymes etc
C
Calorimeter -
An instrument for measuring the heat changes that accompany chemical reactions.
Carbanion -
An organic ion in which one of the carbon atoms has a negative charge.
Carbocation -
An organic ion in which one of the carbon atoms has a positive charge.
Carboxylic Acids -
Organic compounds with the general formula RCOOH in which there is a C=O double bond and an -OH group on the same carbon atom.
Catalytic Cracking -
The breaking, with the aid of a catalyst, of long-chain alkane molecules (obtained from crude oil) into shorter chain hydrocarbons, some of which are alkenes.
Cations -
Positively charged ions.
Chain Reaction -
A reaction with several steps involving free radicals.
Complex Ions -
Ions with more than one atom covalently bonded together.
Coordinate Bonding -
Covalnet bonding in which both the electrons in the bond come from one of the atoms in the bond (also called dative covalent bonding).
Cracking -
The breaking of long-chain alkane molecules (obtained from crude oil) into shorter chain hydrocarbons, some of which are alkenes.
Covalent Bonding -
A type of bonding between non-metal atoms that is the result of electrons being shared between the atoms.
D
Dative Covalent Bonding -
Covalent bonding in which both the electrons in the bond come from one of the atoms in the bond (also called coordinate bonding).
Disproportionation -
Describes a redox reaction in which the oxidation number of some atoms of a particular element increases and that of other atomsof the same element decreases.
E
Electron -
A negatively charged sub-atomic particle that is found at some distance from the nucleas of an atoms.
Electron Pair Repulsion Theory -
A theory which explains the shapes of simple molecules by assuming that groups of electrons around a central atom repel each other and thus take up positions as far away as posible from each other in space.
Electronegativity -
The ability of an atom to attract the electrons in covalent bonds towards itself.
Electrophile -
A reagent that attacks electron-rich areas in an organic molecule (such as carbon-carbon double bond).
Electrostatic Forces -
The forces of attraction and repulsion between electrically charged particles.
Elimination Reaction -
A reaction in which a small molecule such as water or hydrogen chloride is ejected from the reactants.
Empirical Formula -
The simplest whole number ratio in which the atoms in a compound combine together.
Endothermic -
Describes a reaction in which heat is taken in as the reactants change to products - the temperature thus drops.
Energy Density -
Describes the amount of energy stored per kilogram by a fuel. This energy can be released by burning the fuel.
Enthalpy Diagrams -
Diagrams in which the enthalpies (energies) of the reactants and products of a chemical reaction are plotted on a vertical scale to show their relative levels.
Entity -
The simplest forumla unit of a compound.
Exothermic -
Describes a reaction in which heat is given out as the reactants change to products - the temperature thus rises.
Evaluation Issues
These are some of the evaluation issues you should know for Psychology.
A
Androcentric Bias -
Where the researchers study a male only sample, and then generalise it to females.
Applications to Everyday Life -
Do the results apply to everyday life? (links to Usefulness)
C
Control of Variables -
How controlled is the study? Are there any outside factors influencing the results?
D
Demand Characteristics -
Participents pick up on situational/experimental factors and change their behaviour/answers to fit what they think the experimenter wants to see/hear
Deception -
Decieving the participents/subjects
E
Ethics -
A set of rules designed to distinguish between right and wrong
Ethnocentrism -
Being unable to conceptualise or imagine ideas, social beliefs, or the world from any viewpoint other than that of one's own particular culture or social group.
The belief that one's own ethnic group, nation, religion, scout troop, or football team is superior to all others.
Ecological Validity -
A way of assessing how valid a measure or test is, which is concerned with whether the measure or test is really like its counterpart in the real, everyday world.
F
Field Experiment -
A study that follows the logic of the experimental process, but is conducted in the outside world rather than the laboratory.
G
Gynocentric Bias -
Researchers use an all female sample and then generalise it to males.
Generalisabilty -
Can research be applied to the general population?
H
Holistic -
Treating its subject matter as a coherent and indivisable unit.
I
Inter-observer Reliability -
A phrase which describes the extent to which 2 independant observers agree on the observations that they have made.
Individual Differences -
The study and measurement of the significant ways indviduals differ from each other
L
Lab Experiment -
An experiment carried out in an artifical, lab environment.
Longitudinal Study -
A study which monitors changes occuring over a period of time
N
Nomothetic -
Concerned with the formation of general laws, normally of behaviour.
Nature/Nurture -
Nature - The inheritance of abilities or chracteristics
Nurture - Learning or the effect of environmental factors
Nature of Participents -
Describes who was used, the response rates etc
Q
Qualitative Data -
Data which describes meaning and experience rather than providing numerical values for behaviour such as frequency counts (Remember Quality).
Quantitative Data -
Data which focusses on numbers and frequencies rather than on meanings or experience (Remember Quantity).
R
Reinforcement -
Any consequence of any behaviour which increases the probablity of that behaviour re-occurring in simialr circumstances.
Reliability -
If the study was replicated, how likely is it that it would produce the same results?
Reductionism -
Reudes complex behaviour into something much, much simpler.
Response Bias -
The tendency that subjects have to produce experimental responses which are socially desirable, or that they think the experimenter expects.
S
Situational Attribution -
A reason for an act or behaviour which imples it occurred as a result of the situation or circumstances that the person was in at the time.
V
Validity -
How far a given measure assess what it is intended to measure.
Surface Validity -
How far the measure seems appropriate.
Criterion Validity -
The measure being used is compared with another measure or standard that assess the same thing.
Construct Validity -
How far the measure being examined truely presents the theoretical construct which it is supposed to measure.
A
Androcentric Bias -
Where the researchers study a male only sample, and then generalise it to females.
Applications to Everyday Life -
Do the results apply to everyday life? (links to Usefulness)
C
Control of Variables -
How controlled is the study? Are there any outside factors influencing the results?
D
Demand Characteristics -
Participents pick up on situational/experimental factors and change their behaviour/answers to fit what they think the experimenter wants to see/hear
Deception -
Decieving the participents/subjects
E
Ethics -
A set of rules designed to distinguish between right and wrong
Ethnocentrism -
Being unable to conceptualise or imagine ideas, social beliefs, or the world from any viewpoint other than that of one's own particular culture or social group.
The belief that one's own ethnic group, nation, religion, scout troop, or football team is superior to all others.
Ecological Validity -
A way of assessing how valid a measure or test is, which is concerned with whether the measure or test is really like its counterpart in the real, everyday world.
F
Field Experiment -
A study that follows the logic of the experimental process, but is conducted in the outside world rather than the laboratory.
G
Gynocentric Bias -
Researchers use an all female sample and then generalise it to males.
Generalisabilty -
Can research be applied to the general population?
H
Holistic -
Treating its subject matter as a coherent and indivisable unit.
I
Inter-observer Reliability -
A phrase which describes the extent to which 2 independant observers agree on the observations that they have made.
Individual Differences -
The study and measurement of the significant ways indviduals differ from each other
L
Lab Experiment -
An experiment carried out in an artifical, lab environment.
Longitudinal Study -
A study which monitors changes occuring over a period of time
N
Nomothetic -
Concerned with the formation of general laws, normally of behaviour.
Nature/Nurture -
Nature - The inheritance of abilities or chracteristics
Nurture - Learning or the effect of environmental factors
Nature of Participents -
Describes who was used, the response rates etc
Q
Qualitative Data -
Data which describes meaning and experience rather than providing numerical values for behaviour such as frequency counts (Remember Quality).
Quantitative Data -
Data which focusses on numbers and frequencies rather than on meanings or experience (Remember Quantity).
R
Reinforcement -
Any consequence of any behaviour which increases the probablity of that behaviour re-occurring in simialr circumstances.
Reliability -
If the study was replicated, how likely is it that it would produce the same results?
Reductionism -
Reudes complex behaviour into something much, much simpler.
Response Bias -
The tendency that subjects have to produce experimental responses which are socially desirable, or that they think the experimenter expects.
S
Situational Attribution -
A reason for an act or behaviour which imples it occurred as a result of the situation or circumstances that the person was in at the time.
V
Validity -
How far a given measure assess what it is intended to measure.
Surface Validity -
How far the measure seems appropriate.
Criterion Validity -
The measure being used is compared with another measure or standard that assess the same thing.
Construct Validity -
How far the measure being examined truely presents the theoretical construct which it is supposed to measure.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
