I know that exams are upon us, and if you're anything like me, you'll be freaking out. It's normal to be stressing out about exams. A little bit of stress helps us motivate ourselves, helps us get ourselves in gear, get us moving. But too much stress can make us burn out. So, here are 10 Top Tips to keeping the stress levels down, and helping you be prepared for your pending exams. Good Luck!
1) Devise A Cunning Plan.
I write a detailed revision chart a few weeks before exams to help allocate time to revise, time to do homework, time to do chores, time to go out etc. That way I know how many hours I'm spending on my subjects. Always allocate a little bit of extra time to the subjects that you're having trouble with. It doesn't have to be much - just a little extra to help cement it into your brain. It's better to overestimate how much time you'll need to revise than it is to underestimate. You don't want to get over-booked, because that leads to stress. Be realistic and flexible. Look over the syllabus, go over old exam questions, and get your parents and friends involved. (See 'Extra Tips and Tricks')
2) Find A Quiet Space.
It's impossible to get work done when there are distractions and a noisy environment. Close your door, shut yourself in your room, and find your way of working (See '6) Find Your Own Way Of Working'). Try going to the library to get away from distractions, or find a quiet space at home.
3) Aids To Memory.
The more relevant facts you can mention in your exams the better. Make lists of the key facts you need to know in each subject/topic and memorise them. Make memory study cards, or a key facts revision poster, and get friends and family to help test you on them.
4) Don't Stress Over Chores.
Household chores are a pain. But don't panic that you'll never find time to do them. Try talking to your parents and working out a way of condensing and simplifying your chores down. Don't throw a tantrum, but ask politely and state your case. A simple 'I need to focus on my exams, is it OK to leave my room cleaning until the weekend? I promise I'll give it a really good go-over.' is much more effective than 'I can't do my room I'm revising for my future! Ergh, you're so STUPID!!!' Right?
5) Praise Don't Pressure.
Don't pressure yourself into a state. Praise is much better to hear than put-downs. Don't say to yourself 'God, why don't I know that? I'm so thick, I'm gonna fail!' Instead, try asking 'Why don't I know that? Lets go over my notes, and try spending some more time revising it.' Failure is disappointing, but it's not the end of the world. Sure, if you get a D but you really wanted a B, it's annoying, but don't get hung up on it. You can't change the past. Just learn from it.
6) Find Your Own Way Of Working.
Not every revision way is going to work for you. Your mates may like to work in the morning, and yet you just can't drag yourself out of bed. That's fine. Your other friend might be able to revise all day, but you get bored and end up playing computer games. That's fine too. Because those aren't your way of working. Try revising at different times in the day and find the time that's right for you. It may be morning, afternoon, or evening. And then try revising for a long while and then try shorter chunks. I find I can't work more than an hour on one subject before getting bored. So I tend to work for an hour, go off, have a drink, come back in 20 minutes and start again. My tip? Swap subjects after your 'cut off point' and swap mediums. So, if you've revised English for 20 minutes by reading a book, after your break revise Maths by doing quizzes on the Internet. That way your mind is constantly being challenged, and you might even be able to work for longer.
7) Start Your Exam With A Plan.
At the start of every exam I spend about 5-10 minutes jotting down everything I can remember on the topic I'm being asked questions about. That way my knowledge is down on the paper, and my brain can access more information because you're not stressing out as much. Plus you have a note plan for every answer, so you can spend a little more time on structuring a great answer than on panicking that you 'suck'. Plus, if you run out of time, the exam may see your plan and award you some marks. If I'm running out of time I always try and bullet point my answers down, because then I can prove I know what I'm talking about. Timing is everything, so spend about 5-10 minutes reading the exam paper, choosing your answers and planing. You may find you need a little more time, and that's fine. Try practising your timing at home on old exam papers.
8) Chill-out Time.
Always take time out to chill. Watch TV, hang out with mates, do some exercise. Regular breaks and regular chill-outs are the key. If you don't see your friends, or chill, you are heading for severe brain meltdown. And then there's no point revising anyway, because it's all leaking straight back out your ears. Plus, the science behind this? Regular activity helps combat stress hormones. So you get to see your mates and feel less stressed? Sounds like a winner. Just make sure you're home at a reasonable time so you get enough sleep. So no partying until 3am!
Tuesday, May 12, 2009
Thursday, April 23, 2009
Student Tips - Coming Soon!
I've been mulling this over for a while, and think that now could be a good time to implement it, if people are willing.
Trawling the Internet for resources and tips is fine, but who knows how to manage a students schedule/responsibilities better than a student? Most of the tips on the Internet are written by adults who have been there, but are giving tips that are tough to implement. But, if we were to share our tips on how to: remember when homework's due in; manage finances; get the perfect revision timetable; etc etc then we could help each other on a wider variety of subjects than just what we learn in the classroom.
Education is important, but it is important in all areas. So, coming soon will be a student tips section, maybe monthly if we get enough tips, and we can share our own experiences and guidelines on anything and everything to do with student life. So, if you'd like to participate, read below!
How To Enter A Tip:
Trawling the Internet for resources and tips is fine, but who knows how to manage a students schedule/responsibilities better than a student? Most of the tips on the Internet are written by adults who have been there, but are giving tips that are tough to implement. But, if we were to share our tips on how to: remember when homework's due in; manage finances; get the perfect revision timetable; etc etc then we could help each other on a wider variety of subjects than just what we learn in the classroom.
Education is important, but it is important in all areas. So, coming soon will be a student tips section, maybe monthly if we get enough tips, and we can share our own experiences and guidelines on anything and everything to do with student life. So, if you'd like to participate, read below!
How To Enter A Tip:
- Either comment this post, and I will collect them up;
- Email me at this address, and I will collect them up
Exam Questions
Here are some Psychology of Education exam questions. I love exam questions, because they are a great revision tool, as well as great practice. You can download them here , and there's about 4 pages of Section A and Section B questions for you to choose from.
Monday, March 02, 2009
Essay Writing - Part Four
Remember, you can download the entire pack here.
When you have finished the first draft, READ IT THROUGH. If you are in any doubt about the grammar, read it aloud. Have you done a spell check? Have you done a bibliography? Have you numbered and captioned the illustrations? Have you included a word count?
Avoiding Cliché
Here are some common words and phrases that are often misused:
In stark contrast: What is so stark about the contrast? Are you sure it is not just simply a bit different?
Portray: To portray something means to make a portrait of a name individual or thing. By extension, the word can be used metaphorically: thus "James' novel, Washington Square is a portrait of New York society in the 1880's. But this use of 'portray' has become a cliché, and bad writers, unaware of the metaphorical meaning, now use it relentlessly when they really mean 'represent', 'depict', 'show'.
Deeply personal: This is often used as the ultimate term of praise for any sort of artwork. But what does it mean? If you mean that the subject of the work is private life, or intimate experience then say so. It is helpful to remember that everyone experiences love, death, birth etc, but far fewer people can make good art about these experiences. If it is good art it works because it taps into the common realm of such experiences, otherwise we would not be able to understand it.
Capturing the essence: Image-makers do not capture essences of things: they make representations. Image-making is an artificial process; ideas for artworks are not hanging in the air, waiting to be 'captured': the most apparently spontaneous work may involve years of effort. talking about 'capturing essences' mystifies this effort, which should be the real subject of your analysis. Lens-based art is particularly liable to fall victim to this kind of mystification. Instead of saying, for example, that Gillanders' photograph of the poet Ian Hamilton Finlay 'captures the great mans essence', you should consider the portrait as an image which invokes other images; i.e. which deliberately places this image of MacLean in well-known traditions: the Romantic 'Great man' (e.g. Rodin's Thinker), the head of the prophet (e.g. Michaelangelo's Moses).
When you have finished the first draft, READ IT THROUGH. If you are in any doubt about the grammar, read it aloud. Have you done a spell check? Have you done a bibliography? Have you numbered and captioned the illustrations? Have you included a word count?
Avoiding Cliché
Here are some common words and phrases that are often misused:
In stark contrast: What is so stark about the contrast? Are you sure it is not just simply a bit different?
Portray: To portray something means to make a portrait of a name individual or thing. By extension, the word can be used metaphorically: thus "James' novel, Washington Square is a portrait of New York society in the 1880's. But this use of 'portray' has become a cliché, and bad writers, unaware of the metaphorical meaning, now use it relentlessly when they really mean 'represent', 'depict', 'show'.
Deeply personal: This is often used as the ultimate term of praise for any sort of artwork. But what does it mean? If you mean that the subject of the work is private life, or intimate experience then say so. It is helpful to remember that everyone experiences love, death, birth etc, but far fewer people can make good art about these experiences. If it is good art it works because it taps into the common realm of such experiences, otherwise we would not be able to understand it.
Capturing the essence: Image-makers do not capture essences of things: they make representations. Image-making is an artificial process; ideas for artworks are not hanging in the air, waiting to be 'captured': the most apparently spontaneous work may involve years of effort. talking about 'capturing essences' mystifies this effort, which should be the real subject of your analysis. Lens-based art is particularly liable to fall victim to this kind of mystification. Instead of saying, for example, that Gillanders' photograph of the poet Ian Hamilton Finlay 'captures the great mans essence', you should consider the portrait as an image which invokes other images; i.e. which deliberately places this image of MacLean in well-known traditions: the Romantic 'Great man' (e.g. Rodin's Thinker), the head of the prophet (e.g. Michaelangelo's Moses).
Essay Writing - Part Three
Remember, you can download the whole pack from here.
Your Own Ideas and Other People's
Try to avoid vague remarks: Some say... or Many think... Who exactly says or thinks this? You should be able to cite at least one specific individual, and be able to quote what it is that he or she said or thought. If quoting from a book, it is important to supply a context for the quotation. Briefly introduce the new speaker in your text: "According to the anthropologist, Joseph Campbell...", or "In 1908, Freud argued in a letter to Jung that..." This will enable your reader to orient themselves. Then comes the quote (indented and single spaced). Then, explain to the reader the significance of the quote: state explicitly why you are quoting this. Point out any contradictions or interesting implications. Very often you will be able to use this 'exit' from the quote to form a bridge to the subject or point you will be dealing with next.
Good Style
Focus on the artwork, not the artist. An excellent way to approach any still or time-based work of art is to pretend it is anonymous. This will save you from wasting time and words on irrelevant biographical detail. Imagine that all you know about a work is the year and place in which it was made. How would you start researching its meaning? You would have to look first at the culture and historical events, the movements and ideas around it.
Avoid overstatement, as in the sort of sentence that begins, "Truly, Man Ray had entered a new realm of reality..." Had he bodily left the universe or had he just started making a different kind of photographic image? And what is that "Truly" doing there? If it is not true, why say it?
You may find yourself using "Truly" and other redundant constructions ("Hopefully", "Sadly") to make your writing sound more exciting. This is unnecessary. If the event or idea you are discussing is itself interesting or important, all you have to do is describe it and let it speak for itself.
Other forms of overstatement involve making gigantic claims; e.g. "Throughout history, man has endeavored..." or "Never before in the history of photography had..." Few of us actually know enough to make a claim like this. Chances are such statements are going to be plain wrong or at best redundant. Similarly avoid starting with assertions about human nature e.g.: "Man has always used violence as a spur to progress." Has the writer undertaken a comprehensive study of all known civilisations and cultures, at all periods of human history, or are they talking nonsense? What would you think? If in doubt try putting together an opposite statement: "Throughout history man has never tried to..."; "Many/Several times before in the history of photography..."; "Man has always regarded violence as a block to progress." If any of these strike you as at least as likely to be true as the original claim, then you will know you have to change your text.
The truth is that no culture is uniform; cultures are composed of competing and co-operating groups, who may differ radically in their views of their common situation. History tends to be produced through debate and disagreement (dialectic). Where there is slavery, for example, there will always be groups of people trying to abolish it.
Your Own Ideas and Other People's
Try to avoid vague remarks: Some say... or Many think... Who exactly says or thinks this? You should be able to cite at least one specific individual, and be able to quote what it is that he or she said or thought. If quoting from a book, it is important to supply a context for the quotation. Briefly introduce the new speaker in your text: "According to the anthropologist, Joseph Campbell...", or "In 1908, Freud argued in a letter to Jung that..." This will enable your reader to orient themselves. Then comes the quote (indented and single spaced). Then, explain to the reader the significance of the quote: state explicitly why you are quoting this. Point out any contradictions or interesting implications. Very often you will be able to use this 'exit' from the quote to form a bridge to the subject or point you will be dealing with next.
Good Style
Focus on the artwork, not the artist. An excellent way to approach any still or time-based work of art is to pretend it is anonymous. This will save you from wasting time and words on irrelevant biographical detail. Imagine that all you know about a work is the year and place in which it was made. How would you start researching its meaning? You would have to look first at the culture and historical events, the movements and ideas around it.
Avoid overstatement, as in the sort of sentence that begins, "Truly, Man Ray had entered a new realm of reality..." Had he bodily left the universe or had he just started making a different kind of photographic image? And what is that "Truly" doing there? If it is not true, why say it?
You may find yourself using "Truly" and other redundant constructions ("Hopefully", "Sadly") to make your writing sound more exciting. This is unnecessary. If the event or idea you are discussing is itself interesting or important, all you have to do is describe it and let it speak for itself.
Other forms of overstatement involve making gigantic claims; e.g. "Throughout history, man has endeavored..." or "Never before in the history of photography had..." Few of us actually know enough to make a claim like this. Chances are such statements are going to be plain wrong or at best redundant. Similarly avoid starting with assertions about human nature e.g.: "Man has always used violence as a spur to progress." Has the writer undertaken a comprehensive study of all known civilisations and cultures, at all periods of human history, or are they talking nonsense? What would you think? If in doubt try putting together an opposite statement: "Throughout history man has never tried to..."; "Many/Several times before in the history of photography..."; "Man has always regarded violence as a block to progress." If any of these strike you as at least as likely to be true as the original claim, then you will know you have to change your text.
The truth is that no culture is uniform; cultures are composed of competing and co-operating groups, who may differ radically in their views of their common situation. History tends to be produced through debate and disagreement (dialectic). Where there is slavery, for example, there will always be groups of people trying to abolish it.
Essay Writing - Part Two
Remember you can download the whole pack from here.
Notes on Writing
Explain Things Clearly
It is very important to remember that real people, not abstract nouns, are the actual cause of historical events. For example, the sentence "Industrialisation swept across Europe in the nineteenth century" is misleading on several grounds. Grammaically, Industrialisation is not something like a plague of a hurricane; it cannot literally 'sweep' anywhere. So here the author is speaking metaphorically. Is this then a good metaphor? No. What the author of the sentence really means is that, across Europe, millions of people were engaged in building factories and railways; that more and more people now worked in factories with machines, and that the common experience of urban life was radically different for these people that it had been for their grandparents. This type of metaphor is bad for a number of reasons; first it conceals the experience of these people. Worse, by making Industialisation sound like a force of nature, it conceals the political nature of the phenoenon. Finally, the sentence is bad because of its hidden assumptions about causation. It implies, first, that this particular historical change was inevitable, and, second that this change did indeed have the nuetral qualities of a force of nature, instead of being something actively created by specific groups of people, and in this case for profit.
Grammer and Style
Sentences
Keep your sentences short and to the point. use active rather than passive sentences. e.g. "Leibovitz took the photo" (active). "The photo was taken by Leibovitz" (passive). The subject of the sentence must agree in tense, number (singular or plural) and voice; avoid switching from "It says" to "They say" halfway through a sentence. Just because a phrase has some kind of verb in it does not mean it is a sentence. For example: "Combining the two forms in a new way" is not a sentence. This phrase could probably be linked to the previous sentence with a semi-colon (;) or made to stand on its own, e.g. "He/She combined the two forms in a new way."
This is not a trivial matter; sentences are units of sense and logic. If your essay is not expressed in sentences, your writing will not make sense and your points will be confused and confusing. Everyone talks naturally in short sentences, we do not mix up tenses and number. As a test, try reading your essay aloud. Never write anything you can't say.
Paragraphs
Paragraphs are the next unit of sense; a way of organising your thouts typographically, making your argument easier to follow. Typically made up of about three or four linked sentences, paragraphs are used to develop and idea, or present a logical sequence of data. The following sections of this booklet are examples of paragraphs.
Notes on Writing
Explain Things Clearly
It is very important to remember that real people, not abstract nouns, are the actual cause of historical events. For example, the sentence "Industrialisation swept across Europe in the nineteenth century" is misleading on several grounds. Grammaically, Industrialisation is not something like a plague of a hurricane; it cannot literally 'sweep' anywhere. So here the author is speaking metaphorically. Is this then a good metaphor? No. What the author of the sentence really means is that, across Europe, millions of people were engaged in building factories and railways; that more and more people now worked in factories with machines, and that the common experience of urban life was radically different for these people that it had been for their grandparents. This type of metaphor is bad for a number of reasons; first it conceals the experience of these people. Worse, by making Industialisation sound like a force of nature, it conceals the political nature of the phenoenon. Finally, the sentence is bad because of its hidden assumptions about causation. It implies, first, that this particular historical change was inevitable, and, second that this change did indeed have the nuetral qualities of a force of nature, instead of being something actively created by specific groups of people, and in this case for profit.
Grammer and Style
Sentences
Keep your sentences short and to the point. use active rather than passive sentences. e.g. "Leibovitz took the photo" (active). "The photo was taken by Leibovitz" (passive). The subject of the sentence must agree in tense, number (singular or plural) and voice; avoid switching from "It says" to "They say" halfway through a sentence. Just because a phrase has some kind of verb in it does not mean it is a sentence. For example: "Combining the two forms in a new way" is not a sentence. This phrase could probably be linked to the previous sentence with a semi-colon (;) or made to stand on its own, e.g. "He/She combined the two forms in a new way."
This is not a trivial matter; sentences are units of sense and logic. If your essay is not expressed in sentences, your writing will not make sense and your points will be confused and confusing. Everyone talks naturally in short sentences, we do not mix up tenses and number. As a test, try reading your essay aloud. Never write anything you can't say.
Paragraphs
Paragraphs are the next unit of sense; a way of organising your thouts typographically, making your argument easier to follow. Typically made up of about three or four linked sentences, paragraphs are used to develop and idea, or present a logical sequence of data. The following sections of this booklet are examples of paragraphs.
Essay Writing - Part One
This is an important part of nearly every subject you study, and can help out with simple note-taking as well. Below are sectiosn from a pack I was given when we were writing out photography personal study, but it applies for all subjects. Just skip over parts that are purely subject-based. I'll have to type it into parts, so bear with me. Or, you can download the entire pack from here.
Essay Writing
Essay writing is an essential skill when articulating your thoughts and ideas. No matter how good an image maker you are, youw ill need to articulate and explain your ideas through words, whether verbally or written.
Listening and Taking Notes
The first port of call for writing an essay is listening in class. Take notes, a lesson is an interactive experience, even when the teacher is giving a long lecture. The more engaged you are, the more you will get out of it, and the easiest way of doing this is to take notes. Writing while you listen is a key skill; it enables you to remember and absorb more of what you are hearing, which generally improves your memory. When taking notes, flag up any interesting points, or things you would like to know more about. Leave spaces and questions for parts that you missed, or didn't understand. Ask the tutor to fill these points in, or expand on them. Talk to your classmates later to see how they write their notes. NEVER be afraid to ask when you don't know.
Why Reading Helps Understanding Images.
It may not be immediately evident how one can 'apply' a particular piece of reading - a theorectical text, a cultural analysis etc - to a set of pictures, or footage, or media layout. But it is always true that the more you know, the more you can see. What, exactly, we see depends on our viewpoint, and this changes the object we think we are seeing. The job of artists, scholars and critics is to interpret historical events and to evaluate what they really mean, what they appear to mean, and what they can be made to mean, from different viewpoints in culture.
How To Read
We all think we know how to read, but reading with an essay in mind requires preparation and concentration. Again, note-taking is essential. After the fifth book or article, few people will remember the first unless they've made notes. Copy out quotations you find striking or illuminating, note the details of images as you find them. Come equipped with post-it notes and index cards. Get used to carrying a book; read it on the bus or over coffee. Read a newspaper, ideally one with arts coverage and in-depth articles. Keep pen and paper with you so you can jot down ideas and references as you go. Get a decent dictionary and look up words that you don't know, and write them down as you go. The complete Oxford English Dictionary will also tell you when a word was first used, and what it meant then. Use the Dictionary of National Biography, or the Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought to find out the correct names of people and the definitions of more complicated terms such as Modernism or Industrialisation. These methods are probably quicker than looking them up on the Internet. only use the references from the Internet from reliable sources such as University websites or Google Scholar
Essay Writing
Essay writing is an essential skill when articulating your thoughts and ideas. No matter how good an image maker you are, youw ill need to articulate and explain your ideas through words, whether verbally or written.
Listening and Taking Notes
The first port of call for writing an essay is listening in class. Take notes, a lesson is an interactive experience, even when the teacher is giving a long lecture. The more engaged you are, the more you will get out of it, and the easiest way of doing this is to take notes. Writing while you listen is a key skill; it enables you to remember and absorb more of what you are hearing, which generally improves your memory. When taking notes, flag up any interesting points, or things you would like to know more about. Leave spaces and questions for parts that you missed, or didn't understand. Ask the tutor to fill these points in, or expand on them. Talk to your classmates later to see how they write their notes. NEVER be afraid to ask when you don't know.
Why Reading Helps Understanding Images.
It may not be immediately evident how one can 'apply' a particular piece of reading - a theorectical text, a cultural analysis etc - to a set of pictures, or footage, or media layout. But it is always true that the more you know, the more you can see. What, exactly, we see depends on our viewpoint, and this changes the object we think we are seeing. The job of artists, scholars and critics is to interpret historical events and to evaluate what they really mean, what they appear to mean, and what they can be made to mean, from different viewpoints in culture.
How To Read
We all think we know how to read, but reading with an essay in mind requires preparation and concentration. Again, note-taking is essential. After the fifth book or article, few people will remember the first unless they've made notes. Copy out quotations you find striking or illuminating, note the details of images as you find them. Come equipped with post-it notes and index cards. Get used to carrying a book; read it on the bus or over coffee. Read a newspaper, ideally one with arts coverage and in-depth articles. Keep pen and paper with you so you can jot down ideas and references as you go. Get a decent dictionary and look up words that you don't know, and write them down as you go. The complete Oxford English Dictionary will also tell you when a word was first used, and what it meant then. Use the Dictionary of National Biography, or the Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought to find out the correct names of people and the definitions of more complicated terms such as Modernism or Industrialisation. These methods are probably quicker than looking them up on the Internet. only use the references from the Internet from reliable sources such as University websites or Google Scholar
Quotes To Illustarte/Accompany Your Work
I've found, through my time at college, that my photography teacher loves it if I use quotes by a photographer, any photographer, to illustarte my point. So, here's a selection of photographer quotes to help aid your study.
"Photography has become one of the principal devices for experiencing something."
Laurence Van der Zee
"Approach the subject on tip-toe, even if it is still life."
Henri Cartier-Bresson
"...the perfect combination of lighting, form, organisation and emotion, all working together to form the perfect image."
Henri Cartier-Bresson on his theory of "the decisive moment"
"I take photographs to report and inform, to raise awareness and promote understanding."
Sebastiao Salgado
"Photography, when in the hands of the ruling classes, can never be trusted to tell the truth."
Bertoldt Brecht
"An image is an accumulation of time, comprehended instantly."
Tapies
"Like so many documents from war, it (the photograph) was chnged with illustartion and then ended up as a symbol."
Susan Meiselas
"The problem is how to select that silver, that thousandth of a second that is meaningful, out of the whole. Which stones will keep their colour once they've been pulled from the water."
Paul Graham
"Art isn't about providing answers is it? It's more about questions - asking thought-provoking, unexpected unarticulated questions."
Paul Graham
"From today, painting is dead!"
Paul Delaroche, on the announcement of the invention of photography in 1839
"It is important to see what is invisible to others."
Robert frank
"If your pictures aren't good enough then you aren't close enough."
Robert Capaa
"No image is just perceived. It is comprehended, interpreted, even inverted, by the individual observer who invests it with a precises siginificance."
Victor Burgin
"The art is what remains when the occasion has faded."
Eve Arnold
For more, visit brainyquotes
"Photography has become one of the principal devices for experiencing something."
Laurence Van der Zee
"Approach the subject on tip-toe, even if it is still life."
Henri Cartier-Bresson
"...the perfect combination of lighting, form, organisation and emotion, all working together to form the perfect image."
Henri Cartier-Bresson on his theory of "the decisive moment"
"I take photographs to report and inform, to raise awareness and promote understanding."
Sebastiao Salgado
"Photography, when in the hands of the ruling classes, can never be trusted to tell the truth."
Bertoldt Brecht
"An image is an accumulation of time, comprehended instantly."
Tapies
"Like so many documents from war, it (the photograph) was chnged with illustartion and then ended up as a symbol."
Susan Meiselas
"The problem is how to select that silver, that thousandth of a second that is meaningful, out of the whole. Which stones will keep their colour once they've been pulled from the water."
Paul Graham
"Art isn't about providing answers is it? It's more about questions - asking thought-provoking, unexpected unarticulated questions."
Paul Graham
"From today, painting is dead!"
Paul Delaroche, on the announcement of the invention of photography in 1839
"It is important to see what is invisible to others."
Robert frank
"If your pictures aren't good enough then you aren't close enough."
Robert Capaa
"No image is just perceived. It is comprehended, interpreted, even inverted, by the individual observer who invests it with a precises siginificance."
Victor Burgin
"The art is what remains when the occasion has faded."
Eve Arnold
For more, visit brainyquotes
Researching A Photographer/Artist Guide
First Paragraph:
(About the photographer/artist)
Briefly describe when and where s/he worked; which country/city etc; his/her training; the cultural background e.g. if an artist, which art movement are/were they most involved in?; who or what s/he worked for e.g. self, magazine, news agency; the type of photography/art produced e.g. landscape, portrait fashion ...
Second Paragraph:
(About their work)
The photographer's/artist's general approach to making photographs/art; what kind of subject matter/genre?; equipment used, if known; what format - square frame, horizontal, vertical; colour or black and white; focussing method; composition methods; any links with you own work?
Third Paragraph:
(Your analysis)
Analysis of individual image; bullet points can be used; remember to link back to an image of your own with one by your chosen photographer/artist
Use bold titles or sub-titles
Highlight or underline names
Highlight or underline key points
Be concise
Use good quality scans/photocopies
(About the photographer/artist)
Briefly describe when and where s/he worked; which country/city etc; his/her training; the cultural background e.g. if an artist, which art movement are/were they most involved in?; who or what s/he worked for e.g. self, magazine, news agency; the type of photography/art produced e.g. landscape, portrait fashion ...
Second Paragraph:
(About their work)
The photographer's/artist's general approach to making photographs/art; what kind of subject matter/genre?; equipment used, if known; what format - square frame, horizontal, vertical; colour or black and white; focussing method; composition methods; any links with you own work?
Third Paragraph:
(Your analysis)
Analysis of individual image; bullet points can be used; remember to link back to an image of your own with one by your chosen photographer/artist
Use bold titles or sub-titles
Highlight or underline names
Highlight or underline key points
Be concise
Use good quality scans/photocopies
Sunday, March 01, 2009
Exam Questions
Here are some Psychology and Crime past exam questions for you to get stuck into. I personally find these really useful, expecially if you work with your teacher by getting them to mark your answers. They make a really good revision tool, rather than learning 20 pages of notes. You can download a pack of exam questions here.
Section A
1.a) Outline one technique used to produce an offender profile [6 marks]
1.b) Evaluate the effectiveness of techniques used to produce and offender profile [10 marks]
2.a) Describe one study of the social psychology of the criminal [6 marks]
2.b) Evaluate methods used to investigate the social psychology of the criminal [10 marks]
3.a) Describe one laboratory study of eyewitness testimony [6 marks]
3.b) Compare and contrast the laboratory method tro study eyewitness testimony with one alternative method [10 marks]
4.a) Describe one study which demonstrates the development of moral and legal judgement in children [6 marks]
4.b) Discuss the use of children in psychological studies of crime [10 marks]
Section B
1.a) Describe what psychologists have found out about crime-victim interaction [10 marks[
1.b) Evaluate what psychologists have found out about crime-victim interaction [16 marks]
1.c) The police are trying to design a leaflet to encourage people to report crime. Using your knowledge of crime-victim interaction to suggest what factors they should consider. Give reasons for your answer [8 marks]
2.a) Describe what psychologists have found out about the psychology of testimony [10 marks]
2.b) Evaluate what psychologists have found out about the psychology of testimony [16 marks]
2.c) Using your psychological knowledge, suggest ways of helping a witness recall the scenen of an armed robbery [8 marks]
3.a) Describe the jury decision-making process [ 10 marks]
3.b) Discuss the jury decision-making process [16 marks]
3.c) If you were a member of a jury, suggest what rules you mae make for yourself to prevent you from making the wrong decision. Give reasons for your answers [8 marks]
4.a) Consider psychological studies of offender profiling [10 marks]
4.b) Evaluate psychological studies of offender profiling [16 marks]
4.c) Suggest what aims of profiling should be. Give reasons for your answer [8 marks]
Section A
1.a) Outline one technique used to produce an offender profile [6 marks]
1.b) Evaluate the effectiveness of techniques used to produce and offender profile [10 marks]
2.a) Describe one study of the social psychology of the criminal [6 marks]
2.b) Evaluate methods used to investigate the social psychology of the criminal [10 marks]
3.a) Describe one laboratory study of eyewitness testimony [6 marks]
3.b) Compare and contrast the laboratory method tro study eyewitness testimony with one alternative method [10 marks]
4.a) Describe one study which demonstrates the development of moral and legal judgement in children [6 marks]
4.b) Discuss the use of children in psychological studies of crime [10 marks]
Section B
1.a) Describe what psychologists have found out about crime-victim interaction [10 marks[
1.b) Evaluate what psychologists have found out about crime-victim interaction [16 marks]
1.c) The police are trying to design a leaflet to encourage people to report crime. Using your knowledge of crime-victim interaction to suggest what factors they should consider. Give reasons for your answer [8 marks]
2.a) Describe what psychologists have found out about the psychology of testimony [10 marks]
2.b) Evaluate what psychologists have found out about the psychology of testimony [16 marks]
2.c) Using your psychological knowledge, suggest ways of helping a witness recall the scenen of an armed robbery [8 marks]
3.a) Describe the jury decision-making process [ 10 marks]
3.b) Discuss the jury decision-making process [16 marks]
3.c) If you were a member of a jury, suggest what rules you mae make for yourself to prevent you from making the wrong decision. Give reasons for your answers [8 marks]
4.a) Consider psychological studies of offender profiling [10 marks]
4.b) Evaluate psychological studies of offender profiling [16 marks]
4.c) Suggest what aims of profiling should be. Give reasons for your answer [8 marks]
Websites
Some websites to aid your revision, whether you're taking your SATs, GCSEs or A Levels.
{SATs}
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ks2bitesize/
http://www.coxhoe.durham.sch.uk/y6_sat_revision.htm
http://www.satsguide.co.uk/
http://www.icteachers.co.uk/children/children_sats.htm
http://www.satsrevision.co.uk/
http://www.buzzin.net/
http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/revision/
http://www.revisionaid.co.uk/directory.php?cat=ks3Main
{GCSEs}
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/gcse.html
http://www.revisiontime.com/gCSE.htm
http://www.courseworkbank.co.uk/GCSE/
http://www.revision-notes.co.uk/GCSE/index.html
http://www.revisionworld.co.uk/gcse
http://revisioncentre.co.uk/gcse/index.html
http://www.revisionaid.co.uk/directory.php?cat=ks4Main
http://www.examstutor.com/
{A Levels}
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/alevel.html
http://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/
http://www.revisiontime.com/aLevel.htm
http://www.courseworkbank.co.uk/AS__A2_and_A-Level/
http://www.revision-notes.co.uk/A_Level/index.html
http://www.revisionworld.co.uk/alevel
http://www.projectalevel.co.uk/
http://www.revisionaid.co.uk/directory.php?cat=alevelMain
http://www.examstutor.com/
{SATs}
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ks2bitesize/
http://www.coxhoe.durham.sch.uk/y6_sat_revision.htm
http://www.satsguide.co.uk/
http://www.icteachers.co.uk/children/children_sats.htm
http://www.satsrevision.co.uk/
http://www.buzzin.net/
http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/revision/
http://www.revisionaid.co.uk/directory.php?cat=ks3Main
{GCSEs}
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/gcse.html
http://www.revisiontime.com/gCSE.htm
http://www.courseworkbank.co.uk/GCSE/
http://www.revision-notes.co.uk/GCSE/index.html
http://www.revisionworld.co.uk/gcse
http://revisioncentre.co.uk/gcse/index.html
http://www.revisionaid.co.uk/directory.php?cat=ks4Main
http://www.examstutor.com/
{A Levels}
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/alevel.html
http://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/
http://www.revisiontime.com/aLevel.htm
http://www.courseworkbank.co.uk/AS__A2_and_A-Level/
http://www.revision-notes.co.uk/A_Level/index.html
http://www.revisionworld.co.uk/alevel
http://www.projectalevel.co.uk/
http://www.revisionaid.co.uk/directory.php?cat=alevelMain
http://www.examstutor.com/
Discord - Art Exam Theme
This is quite a personal post, because I'm unsure whether this is a national theme, a district theme, or a world-wide theme. But it's my exam project for Photography this year, as well as all the art subjects, and I'm completely stuck on it. Not one clue as to what to do. So if this helps just one person, I know the purpose of this blog is working.
Discord - Ideas and Photographers
Friction / Difference / Opposing Sides / Groups / Ethnicity / War / Terrorism / Surveillance / Censorship ...
Erica Baum, Robert Capa, Don McCullum, Thomas Hirschhorn, Banksy, Sea Synder, Peter Kennard, Guy Tillim, Sarah Pickering, Geert van Kesteren, Simon Norfolk
Anger / Family / Relationships / Disharmony / Internal Conflicts / Mind-Body / Exclusion ...
Tracy Emin, Jo Spence, Nan Golding, Richard Billingham, Larry Clarke, Jim Goldberg, Diane Arbus, Robert Frank
Nightmares / Dreams / Memories / Fact-Fiction / A;ternate Personalities / Parallel Universes ...
Gregory Crewdson, Duane Michals, Olafur Eliasson, Cindy Sherman, Jeff Wall, Sphy Rickett, Paul Pfeiffer, Tacita Dean, Daniel Joseph Martinez, Sueng Woo Back, Philip Lorca diCorcia
Opposites / Dark-Light / Good-Evil / Life-Death / Past-Present ...
Douglas Gordon, John Stezaker, Idris Khan, Garry Fabian Miller, Muireann Brady, Willie Doherty, Ralph Gibson
Other Ideas:
Conflict / Yin-Yang / Hostility / Warfare / Destruction / Decay / Resurrection / Restoration / Protection / Defence / Religious Controversy / Corrosion / Dereliction / Worn Paint / Dispute / Erosion / Pollution / Tension / Friction / Graffeti / Rusty Armour / Ruins / Wrecks / Scrapyards / Refue / Disused Farm Equipment / Derelict Factories-Buildings / Quarries / Buliding Sites / Docklands / Roadworks / Divergence / Barriers / Fissures / Splits / Fractures / Wrestling / Fighting / Arguing / Clashing / Noise / Disharmony / Dissonance / Contrasting Colours / Black-White / Rough-Smooth / Transparent-Opaque / Fatique / Degrading / Strength-Weakness / Clutter-Mess-Junk / Abandoned / Empty-Busy / Arguments / Out Of Place / Appearance / Tattoos / Piercings / Fashion / Beauty-Ugly / Fashioable-Unfashonable / Young-Old / Disfigurement / Normal-Unnormal / Before-After / Protests / Politics / Posters / Messages / TV Images / Composition / Unbalanced / Rips / Tears / Contrast / Mistakes
Other Artists/Photographers:
Josef Beuys, Kurt Schwitters , Paul Nash , Peter Howson, Escher, Howard Hodgkin, Piet Mondrian, Bridget Riley, Frank Auerbach, Giovanni Piranesi, Emily Carr, David Prentice, Beverly Pepper, Graham Sutherland, Edward Burtynsky, Ford Madox Brown, Elainede Kooning, Steve Slimm, Julian Beesley, Susan Rothenberg, William de Kooning, Gillian Ayers, Barbara Rae, Gilbert and George, Vanessa Bell, Peter Blake, Marg Cassat, Velásquez, Cecilia Beaux, Augustas John, Helen Turner, Stanley Spencer, J.M.W. Turner, John Constable, Henri Rousseau, George Stubbs, Ana Mendieta, Annetter Messager, Devrouax and Purnell, Enric Miralles, Leonardo Da Vinci, Luigi Colani, Jane Jacobs, Oscar Newman, Paco Rabanne, Alexander McQueen, Dai Rees, Aiveen Daly, Eileen Grey, Bruce Nauman, Immo Klink, Daniele Buetti, Marlene Dumas, Kilian Breier, Aaron Siskind, Mark Wallinger, MArc Augé, Julian Opie, Alan Fletcher, Emily Mary Osborn, Grace Hartigan, Joan Miro, Florine Stettheimer, Marcel Duchamp, Rist Pipilotti
Other:
'Unpleasantness or quarrelling between people'
'A lack of agreement or harmony (as between persons, ideas or things)'
'Active quarrelling or conflict resulting from discord among persons or fractions'
'A combination of musical sounds that strikes the ear harshly'
'A harsh or unpleasant sound'
Reference Material:
www.tate.org.uk
www.nationalgallery.org.uk
www.iniva.org
www.artsmia.org
www.walkerart.org
www.getty.edu
www.moma.org
www.metmuseum.org
www.sfmoma.org
www.cnac-gp.fr
www.guggenheim.org
www.vam.ac.uk
www.craftscouncil.org.uk
www.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk
www.nmpft.org.uk
www.photonet.org.uk
www.bfi.org.uk
www.icograda.org
www.theaoi.com
Discord - Ideas and Photographers
Friction / Difference / Opposing Sides / Groups / Ethnicity / War / Terrorism / Surveillance / Censorship ...
Erica Baum, Robert Capa, Don McCullum, Thomas Hirschhorn, Banksy, Sea Synder, Peter Kennard, Guy Tillim, Sarah Pickering, Geert van Kesteren, Simon Norfolk
Anger / Family / Relationships / Disharmony / Internal Conflicts / Mind-Body / Exclusion ...
Tracy Emin, Jo Spence, Nan Golding, Richard Billingham, Larry Clarke, Jim Goldberg, Diane Arbus, Robert Frank
Nightmares / Dreams / Memories / Fact-Fiction / A;ternate Personalities / Parallel Universes ...
Gregory Crewdson, Duane Michals, Olafur Eliasson, Cindy Sherman, Jeff Wall, Sphy Rickett, Paul Pfeiffer, Tacita Dean, Daniel Joseph Martinez, Sueng Woo Back, Philip Lorca diCorcia
Opposites / Dark-Light / Good-Evil / Life-Death / Past-Present ...
Douglas Gordon, John Stezaker, Idris Khan, Garry Fabian Miller, Muireann Brady, Willie Doherty, Ralph Gibson
Other Ideas:
Conflict / Yin-Yang / Hostility / Warfare / Destruction / Decay / Resurrection / Restoration / Protection / Defence / Religious Controversy / Corrosion / Dereliction / Worn Paint / Dispute / Erosion / Pollution / Tension / Friction / Graffeti / Rusty Armour / Ruins / Wrecks / Scrapyards / Refue / Disused Farm Equipment / Derelict Factories-Buildings / Quarries / Buliding Sites / Docklands / Roadworks / Divergence / Barriers / Fissures / Splits / Fractures / Wrestling / Fighting / Arguing / Clashing / Noise / Disharmony / Dissonance / Contrasting Colours / Black-White / Rough-Smooth / Transparent-Opaque / Fatique / Degrading / Strength-Weakness / Clutter-Mess-Junk / Abandoned / Empty-Busy / Arguments / Out Of Place / Appearance / Tattoos / Piercings / Fashion / Beauty-Ugly / Fashioable-Unfashonable / Young-Old / Disfigurement / Normal-Unnormal / Before-After / Protests / Politics / Posters / Messages / TV Images / Composition / Unbalanced / Rips / Tears / Contrast / Mistakes
Other Artists/Photographers:
Josef Beuys, Kurt Schwitters , Paul Nash , Peter Howson, Escher, Howard Hodgkin, Piet Mondrian, Bridget Riley, Frank Auerbach, Giovanni Piranesi, Emily Carr, David Prentice, Beverly Pepper, Graham Sutherland, Edward Burtynsky, Ford Madox Brown, Elainede Kooning, Steve Slimm, Julian Beesley, Susan Rothenberg, William de Kooning, Gillian Ayers, Barbara Rae, Gilbert and George, Vanessa Bell, Peter Blake, Marg Cassat, Velásquez, Cecilia Beaux, Augustas John, Helen Turner, Stanley Spencer, J.M.W. Turner, John Constable, Henri Rousseau, George Stubbs, Ana Mendieta, Annetter Messager, Devrouax and Purnell, Enric Miralles, Leonardo Da Vinci, Luigi Colani, Jane Jacobs, Oscar Newman, Paco Rabanne, Alexander McQueen, Dai Rees, Aiveen Daly, Eileen Grey, Bruce Nauman, Immo Klink, Daniele Buetti, Marlene Dumas, Kilian Breier, Aaron Siskind, Mark Wallinger, MArc Augé, Julian Opie, Alan Fletcher, Emily Mary Osborn, Grace Hartigan, Joan Miro, Florine Stettheimer, Marcel Duchamp, Rist Pipilotti
Other:
'Unpleasantness or quarrelling between people'
'A lack of agreement or harmony (as between persons, ideas or things)'
'Active quarrelling or conflict resulting from discord among persons or fractions'
'A combination of musical sounds that strikes the ear harshly'
'A harsh or unpleasant sound'
Reference Material:
www.tate.org.uk
www.nationalgallery.org.uk
www.iniva.org
www.artsmia.org
www.walkerart.org
www.getty.edu
www.moma.org
www.metmuseum.org
www.sfmoma.org
www.cnac-gp.fr
www.guggenheim.org
www.vam.ac.uk
www.craftscouncil.org.uk
www.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk
www.nmpft.org.uk
www.photonet.org.uk
www.bfi.org.uk
www.icograda.org
www.theaoi.com
Another Award!
1) Accept the award, post it on your blog together with the name of the person that has granted the award and his or her blog link..
2) Pass the award to other 15 blogs that are worthy of this acknowledgment. Remember to contact each of them to let them know they have been chosen for this award.
I got given this by the lovely HavenLayouts so I'd like to thank her for that!
Once I know sites, I will tag them!
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Thursday, February 26, 2009
Award again!
pspscrapper gave me this wondeful award, so I would like to thank her for that. I'm touched that she thought this site was worth not only this award, but the other one she gave me. I will have to nominate some sites, but I'm gonna have to leave you guys hanging for a little while as I'm still very new to this, so don't know of many sites. But when I do, I'll award both awards. I will award this to one site that I know out there (other than pspscrapper) which is Haven Layouts. She's wonderful, and made my layout, so this is for her.
Check out pspscrapper for some wonderful kits to make beautiful creations - she's so good, she's on a creative team!
1) Haven Layouts
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3)
4)
5)
Tuesday, February 03, 2009
Examination Tips - Homicide Scenarios & General Tips
Here is some helpful Examination tips for Law, primarily dealing with Homicide Scenario questions. There from a second year textbook, but could easily be translated into first year.
Answering Scenario Questions
Both OCR and WJEC examination papers require candidates to answer problem questions. In these a scenario is set out and candidates have to explain whether someone is liable for a ceiminal offence. There are 4 key points to remember when answering such questions. These are:
As well as general points, there are also ways of approaching scenarios on specific areas of law to make sure that you do Identify the relevant points to be discuss.
When considering a murder problem in an examination question, always consider whether the Actus Reas (AR) and/or the Mens Rea (MR) need discussion for the specific scenario that you have been given. For example, if the facts in the question state that V was shot dead, then there is no need to discuss the AR or any aspect of causation. However, if you are told that D was shot and taken to hospital where he was given the wrong blood and died, then causation is very relevant.
Also, remember that the scenario may involve other points. It may be a situation where it is uncertain whether D had the MR for murder or not. It will therefore be necessary to consider involuntary manslaughter as an alternative.
Alternatively, there may be a defence available to the defendant. Different types of defence have different effects on the verdict. For example, the special defences of diminished responsibilty and provocation can reduce the mandatory life sentence for murder reduced to anything up to a life sentence for manslaughter.
If a defendant proves he was insane at the time of the killing he will not be guilty by reason of insanity. If the defendant successfully pleads automatism, mistake or self-defence he is entitled to be acquitted of murder. If he is intoxicated he may not have the necessary intention for murder.
The following flowchart takes you through the different points you may have to consider.
Answering Scenario Questions
Both OCR and WJEC examination papers require candidates to answer problem questions. In these a scenario is set out and candidates have to explain whether someone is liable for a ceiminal offence. There are 4 key points to remember when answering such questions. These are:
- Identify the offence (and possible defences)
- Define the law on the offence (or defences)
- Expand that deifnition with relevant sections and/or cases
- Apply the law to the facts given in the scenario.
As well as general points, there are also ways of approaching scenarios on specific areas of law to make sure that you do Identify the relevant points to be discuss.
When considering a murder problem in an examination question, always consider whether the Actus Reas (AR) and/or the Mens Rea (MR) need discussion for the specific scenario that you have been given. For example, if the facts in the question state that V was shot dead, then there is no need to discuss the AR or any aspect of causation. However, if you are told that D was shot and taken to hospital where he was given the wrong blood and died, then causation is very relevant.
Also, remember that the scenario may involve other points. It may be a situation where it is uncertain whether D had the MR for murder or not. It will therefore be necessary to consider involuntary manslaughter as an alternative.
Alternatively, there may be a defence available to the defendant. Different types of defence have different effects on the verdict. For example, the special defences of diminished responsibilty and provocation can reduce the mandatory life sentence for murder reduced to anything up to a life sentence for manslaughter.
If a defendant proves he was insane at the time of the killing he will not be guilty by reason of insanity. If the defendant successfully pleads automatism, mistake or self-defence he is entitled to be acquitted of murder. If he is intoxicated he may not have the necessary intention for murder.
The following flowchart takes you through the different points you may have to consider.
Did the defendant do an act which caused Vs death? ----> No, not guilty of murder
|
|
v
|
|
v
Yes
Did the defendant intend to kill or cause GBH? ----> No, not guilty of murder but consider involuntary manslaughter
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|
v
Yes
Was the defendant suffering from Diminished Responsibilty? ----> Yes, not guilty of murder, but guilty of voluntary manslaughter.
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|
v
No
Was the defendant provoked? ----> Yes, not guilty of murder but guilty of voluntary manslaughter.
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v
No
Was the defendant insane? ----> Yes, not guilty of murder by reason of insanity
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v
No
Was the defendant acting in self-defence and used reasonable force in the circumstances as he believed them to be? ----> Yes, not guilty of murder
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v
No
Does the defendant have another defence available to him? (Automatism, Mistake, Intoxication) ----> Yes, not guilty of murder
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v
No
Guilty of murder
Did the defendant intend to kill or cause GBH? ----> No, not guilty of murder but consider involuntary manslaughter
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|
v
Yes
Was the defendant suffering from Diminished Responsibilty? ----> Yes, not guilty of murder, but guilty of voluntary manslaughter.
|
|
v
No
Was the defendant provoked? ----> Yes, not guilty of murder but guilty of voluntary manslaughter.
|
|
v
No
Was the defendant insane? ----> Yes, not guilty of murder by reason of insanity
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|
v
No
Was the defendant acting in self-defence and used reasonable force in the circumstances as he believed them to be? ----> Yes, not guilty of murder
|
|
v
No
Does the defendant have another defence available to him? (Automatism, Mistake, Intoxication) ----> Yes, not guilty of murder
|
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v
No
Guilty of murder
Wednesday, January 14, 2009
Glossary - Part S, T, V, W and Z
The final part of our Psychology and Crime glossary, this includes letters S - Z. Remember, you can download the entire file from here.
S
Schema -
A cognitive structure into which knowledge is organised in order to make sense of objects, people and situations in the world.
Self-fulfilling Prophecy -
A prediction that comes true because it has been made. Related to labelling theory.
Self-serving Attribution Bias -
The tendency to attribute our successed to dispositional factors and our failures to situational ones.
Situational Attribution -
Attributing someone's behaviour to factors external to them.
Social Cognition -
The process by which we make sense of other people and their actions.
Social Learning Theory -
The view that behaviour is primarily leaned from observations of models.
Social Skills Training -
An attempt to reduce aggressive behaviour by equippig offenders with the skills to manage interactions more effectively.
Socio-economic Status (SES) -
A way of classifying people in terms of their occupational background and economic circumstances. Low SES generally implies manual or semi/unskilled occupation, lower income and fewer years in education, high SES the converse.
Somatotype -
Bodily build, classified as endomorph (at), ectomorph (thin), and mesomorph (muscular). According to some early theorists, such as Sheldon, different personality types are associated with the different somatotypes.
Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) -
In the US, a branch of the police force involved mainly in special operations, such as hostage-taking incidents.
Standard Interview Procedure -
The usual method by which police interviews are conducted.
Story Order -
An evidence strategy in which witnesses appear in the sequence in which events occurred. Considered more effective than witness order.
T
Television Technique -
A hypnotic techinque in which a witness is encouraged to imagine an event as it seen on television.
Testosterone -
A male sex hormone the main role of which is to promote sexual development and behaviour. However, it may also influence a range of other behaviours including aggression.
Token Economy -
An attempt to reduce offending behaviour by selectively reinforcing desirable behaviours within an institution.
V
VICAP -
The Violent Criminal Apprehension Programmed. An FBI database of violent offences used to generate offender profiles.
Victim Derogation -
The tendency to blame a victim for their own misfortune. Related to belief in a just world.
Victimisation Survey -
A technique for measuring the crime rate which, instead of relying on crime statistics as reported by the police, surveys a sample of the population about their experiences of crime. Victimisation surveys typically reveal a higher incidence of crime than police figures.
Violence Distraction -
The tendency for witnesses of violent events to provide poorer testimony than witnesses of non-violent events, either because of the detrimental effect of arousal on memory or possibly due to weapon focus.
W
Weapon Focus -
The tendency for witnesses of violent crimes to focus on the weapon used, generally resulting in poorer recall of other aspects of the event.
Witness Order -
An evidence strategy in which witnessess appear in the order deemed most likely to persuade a jury. Considered less effective than story order.
Z
Zero Tolerance -
An approach to the prevention of serious crime based on vigorous police response to minor infractions of the law.
S
Schema -
A cognitive structure into which knowledge is organised in order to make sense of objects, people and situations in the world.
Self-fulfilling Prophecy -
A prediction that comes true because it has been made. Related to labelling theory.
Self-serving Attribution Bias -
The tendency to attribute our successed to dispositional factors and our failures to situational ones.
Situational Attribution -
Attributing someone's behaviour to factors external to them.
Social Cognition -
The process by which we make sense of other people and their actions.
Social Learning Theory -
The view that behaviour is primarily leaned from observations of models.
Social Skills Training -
An attempt to reduce aggressive behaviour by equippig offenders with the skills to manage interactions more effectively.
Socio-economic Status (SES) -
A way of classifying people in terms of their occupational background and economic circumstances. Low SES generally implies manual or semi/unskilled occupation, lower income and fewer years in education, high SES the converse.
Somatotype -
Bodily build, classified as endomorph (at), ectomorph (thin), and mesomorph (muscular). According to some early theorists, such as Sheldon, different personality types are associated with the different somatotypes.
Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) -
In the US, a branch of the police force involved mainly in special operations, such as hostage-taking incidents.
Standard Interview Procedure -
The usual method by which police interviews are conducted.
Story Order -
An evidence strategy in which witnesses appear in the sequence in which events occurred. Considered more effective than witness order.
T
Television Technique -
A hypnotic techinque in which a witness is encouraged to imagine an event as it seen on television.
Testosterone -
A male sex hormone the main role of which is to promote sexual development and behaviour. However, it may also influence a range of other behaviours including aggression.
Token Economy -
An attempt to reduce offending behaviour by selectively reinforcing desirable behaviours within an institution.
V
VICAP -
The Violent Criminal Apprehension Programmed. An FBI database of violent offences used to generate offender profiles.
Victim Derogation -
The tendency to blame a victim for their own misfortune. Related to belief in a just world.
Victimisation Survey -
A technique for measuring the crime rate which, instead of relying on crime statistics as reported by the police, surveys a sample of the population about their experiences of crime. Victimisation surveys typically reveal a higher incidence of crime than police figures.
Violence Distraction -
The tendency for witnesses of violent events to provide poorer testimony than witnesses of non-violent events, either because of the detrimental effect of arousal on memory or possibly due to weapon focus.
W
Weapon Focus -
The tendency for witnesses of violent crimes to focus on the weapon used, generally resulting in poorer recall of other aspects of the event.
Witness Order -
An evidence strategy in which witnessess appear in the order deemed most likely to persuade a jury. Considered less effective than story order.
Z
Zero Tolerance -
An approach to the prevention of serious crime based on vigorous police response to minor infractions of the law.
Glossary - Part J, L, M, O, P, R
This is the third installment of the Psychology for Crime glossary and covers letters J - R. Remember, you can download the entire file from here.
J
Juror Bias Scale -
A technique for measuring the degree of prejudice and bias in potential jurors.
Just World Hypothesis -
The belief, held by some people, that the world is a fair and just place in which people deserve the things that happen to them.
L
Labelling Theory -
The view that the label that is applied to an individual by others (e.g. 'criminal') can influence their behaviour.
Locus of Control -
The extent to which a person feels they are in charge of their own destiny.
M
Marauder -
An offender who operates from a home base.
Maternal Deprivation Theory -
The view, associated with the work of John Bowlby, that deviant behaviour in adulthood is the result of separation from the attachment figure early in life.
Model -
In social learning theory (SLT), a person whose behaviour is observed in order to learn it.
Monozygotic Twins -
Identical twins, who share 100% of their genetic information.
O
Offender Profiling -
The use of crime scene evidence to make educated guesses about the likely characteristics of an offender.
P
Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) -
An act of Parliament passed in 1984 that, amongst other things, limited the ways in which police interrogations can be carried out.
Prevalence of Crime -
The number of people in the population involved in committing crimes. Variations in the crime rate can be the result of variations in prevalence (e.g. more people committing crimes) or incidence (e.g. the same number of people committing more crimes).
Psycho-legal Studies -
A branch of forensic psychology concerned with lagal processses such as jury decision making.
Psychological Autopsy -
The use of crime scenes and psychological evidence to work out possible causes of death.
Psychometric Testing -
The measurement of psychological characteristics, usually through the use of questionnaires or inventories. Such tests may concern intelligence (IQ) or personailty and generally yieldnumerical measurements of the attribute being investigated.
Psychopath -
An individual who appears to lack anxiety and guilt and is typically prone to impulsive and aggressive behaviour. Such individuals are likely to became involed in crimes although it should be stressed that not all psychopaths become criminals.
R
Rational Choice Theory (RCT) -
An approach to understanding criminality that emphasises the role of rational processes in the decision to commit a crime.
Reconstructive Memory -
The view that memories, rather than being accurate accounts of events, are 'imaginative reconstructions' based on schematic knowledge.
J
Juror Bias Scale -
A technique for measuring the degree of prejudice and bias in potential jurors.
Just World Hypothesis -
The belief, held by some people, that the world is a fair and just place in which people deserve the things that happen to them.
L
Labelling Theory -
The view that the label that is applied to an individual by others (e.g. 'criminal') can influence their behaviour.
Locus of Control -
The extent to which a person feels they are in charge of their own destiny.
M
Marauder -
An offender who operates from a home base.
Maternal Deprivation Theory -
The view, associated with the work of John Bowlby, that deviant behaviour in adulthood is the result of separation from the attachment figure early in life.
Model -
In social learning theory (SLT), a person whose behaviour is observed in order to learn it.
Monozygotic Twins -
Identical twins, who share 100% of their genetic information.
O
Offender Profiling -
The use of crime scene evidence to make educated guesses about the likely characteristics of an offender.
P
Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) -
An act of Parliament passed in 1984 that, amongst other things, limited the ways in which police interrogations can be carried out.
Prevalence of Crime -
The number of people in the population involved in committing crimes. Variations in the crime rate can be the result of variations in prevalence (e.g. more people committing crimes) or incidence (e.g. the same number of people committing more crimes).
Psycho-legal Studies -
A branch of forensic psychology concerned with lagal processses such as jury decision making.
Psychological Autopsy -
The use of crime scenes and psychological evidence to work out possible causes of death.
Psychometric Testing -
The measurement of psychological characteristics, usually through the use of questionnaires or inventories. Such tests may concern intelligence (IQ) or personailty and generally yieldnumerical measurements of the attribute being investigated.
Psychopath -
An individual who appears to lack anxiety and guilt and is typically prone to impulsive and aggressive behaviour. Such individuals are likely to became involed in crimes although it should be stressed that not all psychopaths become criminals.
R
Rational Choice Theory (RCT) -
An approach to understanding criminality that emphasises the role of rational processes in the decision to commit a crime.
Reconstructive Memory -
The view that memories, rather than being accurate accounts of events, are 'imaginative reconstructions' based on schematic knowledge.
Glossary - Part D, E, F, G, H, and I
This is the second part of the Psychology and Crime gloassayr, and will contain the letters D - I. Remember you can download the entire glossary from here.
D
Dark Figure -
The proportion of crimes that are committed but which are not detected by official crime statistics.
Defensible Space -
Areas (for example, of a residential development) that appear to belong to someone, having clear boundaries against outsiders and characterised by high levels of natural surveillance.
Demand Characteristics -
The cues that are present in an experimental situation that particpants may use in order to work out the experimental aim. There is a danger that participants may alter their behaviour in response to demand characteristics, invalidating the experiment.
Deterministic -
Describes any theory which suggests that people do not have freedom of choice over their actions.
Deviance Amplification -
The tendency of media sources to 'over-report' certain types of crime (e.g. murder), potentially leading members of the public to have an exaggerated idea of the frequency of such crimes.
Dispositional Attribution -
Attributing someone's behaviour to factors internal to them (e.g. personality).
Dizygotic Twins -
Non-identical twins, sharing the same amount of genetic information as any two siblings.
DNA Profiling -
The use of DNA evidence from crime scenes to identify offenders, link different crimes and eliminate suspects from an enquiry.
DSM-III-R -
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychological Disorders (third edition, revised). A widely used scheme for classifying and diagnosing psychological disorders, now superseded by DSM-IV.
E
Ecological Validity -
The extent to which an experimental situation resembles the real-life situation to which researchers wish to generalise. Research that is low in ecological validity may not generalise well to real-life situations.
Evidential -
Relating to evidence as presented in court.
Expert Evidence -
Legal evidence from an acknowledged expert which is given particular weight because of their expertise.
Extra-evidential -
Relating to factors (e.g. the appearance of the defendant) other than the evidence presented in courts.
F
Forensic Hypnosis -
The use of hypnotic techniques in an attempt to improve witness reliabilty.
Forensic Psychology -
The application of psychological research to the legal system.
Fundamental Attribution Bias -
The tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviour and dispositional ones for others' behaviour.
H
Hedonic Relevance -
A phenomenon whereby our attributions change depending on the degree of relevance a situation has for us.
I
Incidence of Crime -
The number of crimes that are committed.
Inquisitorial System -
An alternative trial procedure to the adversarial system, in which the presiding judge(s) controls proceedings, examines eyewitnesses and directs the gathering of evidence.
Interrogation -
A police interview carried out for the express purpose of extracting a confession from a suspect.
Investigative Psychology -
The application of psychological principles to analyse crimes and apprehend offenders.
D
Dark Figure -
The proportion of crimes that are committed but which are not detected by official crime statistics.
Defensible Space -
Areas (for example, of a residential development) that appear to belong to someone, having clear boundaries against outsiders and characterised by high levels of natural surveillance.
Demand Characteristics -
The cues that are present in an experimental situation that particpants may use in order to work out the experimental aim. There is a danger that participants may alter their behaviour in response to demand characteristics, invalidating the experiment.
Deterministic -
Describes any theory which suggests that people do not have freedom of choice over their actions.
Deviance Amplification -
The tendency of media sources to 'over-report' certain types of crime (e.g. murder), potentially leading members of the public to have an exaggerated idea of the frequency of such crimes.
Dispositional Attribution -
Attributing someone's behaviour to factors internal to them (e.g. personality).
Dizygotic Twins -
Non-identical twins, sharing the same amount of genetic information as any two siblings.
DNA Profiling -
The use of DNA evidence from crime scenes to identify offenders, link different crimes and eliminate suspects from an enquiry.
DSM-III-R -
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychological Disorders (third edition, revised). A widely used scheme for classifying and diagnosing psychological disorders, now superseded by DSM-IV.
E
Ecological Validity -
The extent to which an experimental situation resembles the real-life situation to which researchers wish to generalise. Research that is low in ecological validity may not generalise well to real-life situations.
Evidential -
Relating to evidence as presented in court.
Expert Evidence -
Legal evidence from an acknowledged expert which is given particular weight because of their expertise.
Extra-evidential -
Relating to factors (e.g. the appearance of the defendant) other than the evidence presented in courts.
F
Forensic Hypnosis -
The use of hypnotic techniques in an attempt to improve witness reliabilty.
Forensic Psychology -
The application of psychological research to the legal system.
Fundamental Attribution Bias -
The tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviour and dispositional ones for others' behaviour.
H
Hedonic Relevance -
A phenomenon whereby our attributions change depending on the degree of relevance a situation has for us.
I
Incidence of Crime -
The number of crimes that are committed.
Inquisitorial System -
An alternative trial procedure to the adversarial system, in which the presiding judge(s) controls proceedings, examines eyewitnesses and directs the gathering of evidence.
Interrogation -
A police interview carried out for the express purpose of extracting a confession from a suspect.
Investigative Psychology -
The application of psychological principles to analyse crimes and apprehend offenders.
Glossary Part 3
Finally, P - T of the glossary. All the terms come from the glossary of this book. Remember, you can download the entire glossary from here.
P
Periodicity -
The regular recurrence of the properties of elements when they are arranged in atomic number order as in the Periodic Table.
Period -
A horizontal row of elements in the Periodic Table. There are trends in the properties of the elements as we cross a period.
Propagation -
One of the steps of a chain reaction in which a free radical converts reactant into product and another free radical is formed which can take part in another propagation step.
Proton -
A positively charged sub-atomic particle found in the nuclei of atoms.
R
Redox -
Short for reduction-oxidation, it describes reactions in which electrons are transferred from one species to another.
Reducing Agent -
A reagent that reduces (adds electron to) another species.
Reduction -
A reaction in which an atom or group of atoms gains electrons.
S
Shielded Nuclear Charge -
(also called effective nuclear charge). The positive charge from the nucleus that is felt by the outer electrons of an atom - it is the total number of positive charges on the nucleus of an atom minus the total number of inner electrons.
Specific Heat Capacity, c -
The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1g of substance by 1K.
Spectator Ions -
Ions that are unchanged during a chemical reaction i.e. they take no part in the reaction.
Standard Molar Enthalpy Change of Combustion -
The amount of heat energy given out when 1 mole of a substance is completely burned in oxygen at standard conditions (298K and 100kPa).
Standard Molar Enthalpy Change of Formation -
The heat change when 1 mole of substance is formed from its elements at standard conditions (298K and 100kPa).
Stoichiometric -
Describes the simple whole number ratios in which chemical species react.
Strong Nuclear Force -
The force that holds protons and neutrons together whithin the nucleus of an atom.
T
Termination -
The stage of a chain reaction in which two free radicals combine together to give a species that is not a free radical.
Thermal Decomposition -
The breakdown of a compound by heat.
Thermochemical Cycle -
A sequence of chemical reactions (with their enthalpy changes) that convert a reactant into a product. The total enthalpy change of the sequence of reactions will be the same as that for the conversion of the reactant to the prduct directly (or by any other route).
P
Periodicity -
The regular recurrence of the properties of elements when they are arranged in atomic number order as in the Periodic Table.
Period -
A horizontal row of elements in the Periodic Table. There are trends in the properties of the elements as we cross a period.
Propagation -
One of the steps of a chain reaction in which a free radical converts reactant into product and another free radical is formed which can take part in another propagation step.
Proton -
A positively charged sub-atomic particle found in the nuclei of atoms.
R
Redox -
Short for reduction-oxidation, it describes reactions in which electrons are transferred from one species to another.
Reducing Agent -
A reagent that reduces (adds electron to) another species.
Reduction -
A reaction in which an atom or group of atoms gains electrons.
S
Shielded Nuclear Charge -
(also called effective nuclear charge). The positive charge from the nucleus that is felt by the outer electrons of an atom - it is the total number of positive charges on the nucleus of an atom minus the total number of inner electrons.
Specific Heat Capacity, c -
The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1g of substance by 1K.
Spectator Ions -
Ions that are unchanged during a chemical reaction i.e. they take no part in the reaction.
Standard Molar Enthalpy Change of Combustion -
The amount of heat energy given out when 1 mole of a substance is completely burned in oxygen at standard conditions (298K and 100kPa).
Standard Molar Enthalpy Change of Formation -
The heat change when 1 mole of substance is formed from its elements at standard conditions (298K and 100kPa).
Stoichiometric -
Describes the simple whole number ratios in which chemical species react.
Strong Nuclear Force -
The force that holds protons and neutrons together whithin the nucleus of an atom.
T
Termination -
The stage of a chain reaction in which two free radicals combine together to give a species that is not a free radical.
Thermal Decomposition -
The breakdown of a compound by heat.
Thermochemical Cycle -
A sequence of chemical reactions (with their enthalpy changes) that convert a reactant into a product. The total enthalpy change of the sequence of reactions will be the same as that for the conversion of the reactant to the prduct directly (or by any other route).
Glossary Part 2
F - O of the Chemistry Glossary. All the terms come from the gloassary of this book. Remember, you can download the entire glossary from here.
F
Free Radical -
A reagent that has an unpaired electron.
G
General Formula -
The formula of a family of organic compounds expressed by using n to represent the number of carbon atoms.
Giant Molecular Structure -
An arrangment of atoms covalently bonded together in such a way that the structure extends indefinetely in 3 dimensions.
Giant Structure -
An arrangement of atoms or ions bonded together in such a way that the structure extends indefinetely in 3 dimensions.
Group -
A vertical column of elements in the Periodic Table. The elements have similar properties because they have the same outer electron arrangement.
Heterolysis -
Describes the breaking down of a covalent bond such that both the electrons in the bond go to one of the atoms and none to the other. The process results in the formation of a positive ion and a negative ion.
Homologous Series -
A set of organic compounds with the same functional group. The compounds differ in the length of their hydrocarbon chains.
Homolysis -
Describes the breaking of a covalent bond such that one of the electrons in the bond goes to one of the formation of a pair of free radicals.
I
Initiation -
The first step of a chain reactions in which a pair of free radicals is formed by bond homolysis.
Intermolecular Forces -
Forces that act between molecules and atoms that are not covalently bonded together (van der Waals forces, dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonding).
Ionic Bonding -
A type of bonding between metals and non-metals that is the result of the attraction between the positive metal ions and negative non-metal ions, formed from the transfer of electrons.
Ionisation Energy -
The energy required to remove a mole of electrons from a mole of isolated gaseous atoms.
Ions -
Atoms or molecules that have an overall electrical charge.
Isotopes -
Atoms of the same element (i.e. having the same number of protons) but having different numbers of neutrons.
K
Ketone -
An organic compound inwhich there is a C=O double bond.
L
Leaving Group -
In an organic substitution reaction, the leaving group is an atom or group of atoms that is ejected from the starting material, normally taking with it an electron pair and forming a negative ion.
Lone Pair -
A pair of electrons that is not involved in bonding, in the outer shell of an atom. Also called an unshared pair.
M
Mass Number (or Nucleon Number) -
The total number of neutrons and protons (nucleons) in the nucleus of an atom.
Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution -
The distribution of energies (and therefore speeds) of the molecules in a gas or liquid.
Metallic Bonding -
A type of bonding found in metals in which positively charged metal ions are held together by their attraction to their pooled sea of outer electrons.
Molecular Formula -
A formula that tells us the numbers of atoms of different elements that make up a molecule of a compound.
Molecular Orbitals -
Volumes of space in which electrons may be found. They spread over two (or more) atoms.
Molecular Structure -
A compound that consists of small molecules.
Molecule -
A small group of atoms held together by covalent bonds.
Monomer -
A small molecule that combines with many other monomers to form a polymer.
N
Neutron -
An uncharged sub-atomic particle found in the nuclei of atoms.
Nucleons -
Protons and neutrons - the sub-atomic particles found in the nuclei of atoms.
Nucleophilic Substitution -
An organic reaction in which a molecule with a partially positively charged carbon atom is attacked by a reagent with a negative charge (a nucleophile). It results in the replacement of one of the groups or atoms on the orginal molecule by the nucleophile.
Nucleus -
The tiny, positively charged centre of an atom composed of protons and neutrons.
O
Orbital -
A volume of space in which an electron or pair of electrons may be found.
Oxidation -
A reaction in which an atom or group of atoms loses electrons.
Oxidation Number -
The number of electrons lost or gained by an atom in a compound compared to the uncombined atom. It forms the basis of a way of keeping track of redox (electron transfer) reactions.
Oxidation State -
An alternative term for oxidation number.
Oxidising Agent -
A reagent that oxidises (removes electron from) another species.
Oxidising Power -
The ability of a reagent to oxidise (remove electron from) another species.
F
Free Radical -
A reagent that has an unpaired electron.
G
General Formula -
The formula of a family of organic compounds expressed by using n to represent the number of carbon atoms.
Giant Molecular Structure -
An arrangment of atoms covalently bonded together in such a way that the structure extends indefinetely in 3 dimensions.
Giant Structure -
An arrangement of atoms or ions bonded together in such a way that the structure extends indefinetely in 3 dimensions.
Group -
A vertical column of elements in the Periodic Table. The elements have similar properties because they have the same outer electron arrangement.
Heterolysis -
Describes the breaking down of a covalent bond such that both the electrons in the bond go to one of the atoms and none to the other. The process results in the formation of a positive ion and a negative ion.
Homologous Series -
A set of organic compounds with the same functional group. The compounds differ in the length of their hydrocarbon chains.
Homolysis -
Describes the breaking of a covalent bond such that one of the electrons in the bond goes to one of the formation of a pair of free radicals.
I
Initiation -
The first step of a chain reactions in which a pair of free radicals is formed by bond homolysis.
Intermolecular Forces -
Forces that act between molecules and atoms that are not covalently bonded together (van der Waals forces, dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonding).
Ionic Bonding -
A type of bonding between metals and non-metals that is the result of the attraction between the positive metal ions and negative non-metal ions, formed from the transfer of electrons.
Ionisation Energy -
The energy required to remove a mole of electrons from a mole of isolated gaseous atoms.
Ions -
Atoms or molecules that have an overall electrical charge.
Isotopes -
Atoms of the same element (i.e. having the same number of protons) but having different numbers of neutrons.
K
Ketone -
An organic compound inwhich there is a C=O double bond.
L
Leaving Group -
In an organic substitution reaction, the leaving group is an atom or group of atoms that is ejected from the starting material, normally taking with it an electron pair and forming a negative ion.
Lone Pair -
A pair of electrons that is not involved in bonding, in the outer shell of an atom. Also called an unshared pair.
M
Mass Number (or Nucleon Number) -
The total number of neutrons and protons (nucleons) in the nucleus of an atom.
Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution -
The distribution of energies (and therefore speeds) of the molecules in a gas or liquid.
Metallic Bonding -
A type of bonding found in metals in which positively charged metal ions are held together by their attraction to their pooled sea of outer electrons.
Molecular Formula -
A formula that tells us the numbers of atoms of different elements that make up a molecule of a compound.
Molecular Orbitals -
Volumes of space in which electrons may be found. They spread over two (or more) atoms.
Molecular Structure -
A compound that consists of small molecules.
Molecule -
A small group of atoms held together by covalent bonds.
Monomer -
A small molecule that combines with many other monomers to form a polymer.
N
Neutron -
An uncharged sub-atomic particle found in the nuclei of atoms.
Nucleons -
Protons and neutrons - the sub-atomic particles found in the nuclei of atoms.
Nucleophilic Substitution -
An organic reaction in which a molecule with a partially positively charged carbon atom is attacked by a reagent with a negative charge (a nucleophile). It results in the replacement of one of the groups or atoms on the orginal molecule by the nucleophile.
Nucleus -
The tiny, positively charged centre of an atom composed of protons and neutrons.
O
Orbital -
A volume of space in which an electron or pair of electrons may be found.
Oxidation -
A reaction in which an atom or group of atoms loses electrons.
Oxidation Number -
The number of electrons lost or gained by an atom in a compound compared to the uncombined atom. It forms the basis of a way of keeping track of redox (electron transfer) reactions.
Oxidation State -
An alternative term for oxidation number.
Oxidising Agent -
A reagent that oxidises (removes electron from) another species.
Oxidising Power -
The ability of a reagent to oxidise (remove electron from) another species.
Sunday, January 11, 2009
Glossary
A - E of a Chemistry Glossary. All the terms come from the gloassary of this book. You can download the entire glossary file from here.
A
Activation Energy -
The minimum energy that a particle needs in order to react: the energy (enthalpy) difference between the reactants and the transition state.
Aldehyde -
An organic compound with the general formula RCHO in which there is a C=O double bond.
Allotropes -
Pure elements which can exist in different physical forms in which their atoms are arranged differently. For example, diamond, graphite and buckminsterfullerene are allotropes of carbon.
Anions -
Negatively charged ions.
Atomic Number (Proton Number) -
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Also the order of an element in the Periodic Table.
Average Bond Enthalpy -
The amount of enthalpy (energy) that has to be put in to break a specicfied chemical bond. It is an average value for the specified bond in a number of different compounds.
B
Biodegradeable -
A substances is biodegradeable if it breaks down naturally in the environment under the action of microorganisms, enzymes etc
C
Calorimeter -
An instrument for measuring the heat changes that accompany chemical reactions.
Carbanion -
An organic ion in which one of the carbon atoms has a negative charge.
Carbocation -
An organic ion in which one of the carbon atoms has a positive charge.
Carboxylic Acids -
Organic compounds with the general formula RCOOH in which there is a C=O double bond and an -OH group on the same carbon atom.
Catalytic Cracking -
The breaking, with the aid of a catalyst, of long-chain alkane molecules (obtained from crude oil) into shorter chain hydrocarbons, some of which are alkenes.
Cations -
Positively charged ions.
Chain Reaction -
A reaction with several steps involving free radicals.
Complex Ions -
Ions with more than one atom covalently bonded together.
Coordinate Bonding -
Covalnet bonding in which both the electrons in the bond come from one of the atoms in the bond (also called dative covalent bonding).
Cracking -
The breaking of long-chain alkane molecules (obtained from crude oil) into shorter chain hydrocarbons, some of which are alkenes.
Covalent Bonding -
A type of bonding between non-metal atoms that is the result of electrons being shared between the atoms.
D
Dative Covalent Bonding -
Covalent bonding in which both the electrons in the bond come from one of the atoms in the bond (also called coordinate bonding).
Disproportionation -
Describes a redox reaction in which the oxidation number of some atoms of a particular element increases and that of other atomsof the same element decreases.
E
Electron -
A negatively charged sub-atomic particle that is found at some distance from the nucleas of an atoms.
Electron Pair Repulsion Theory -
A theory which explains the shapes of simple molecules by assuming that groups of electrons around a central atom repel each other and thus take up positions as far away as posible from each other in space.
Electronegativity -
The ability of an atom to attract the electrons in covalent bonds towards itself.
Electrophile -
A reagent that attacks electron-rich areas in an organic molecule (such as carbon-carbon double bond).
Electrostatic Forces -
The forces of attraction and repulsion between electrically charged particles.
Elimination Reaction -
A reaction in which a small molecule such as water or hydrogen chloride is ejected from the reactants.
Empirical Formula -
The simplest whole number ratio in which the atoms in a compound combine together.
Endothermic -
Describes a reaction in which heat is taken in as the reactants change to products - the temperature thus drops.
Energy Density -
Describes the amount of energy stored per kilogram by a fuel. This energy can be released by burning the fuel.
Enthalpy Diagrams -
Diagrams in which the enthalpies (energies) of the reactants and products of a chemical reaction are plotted on a vertical scale to show their relative levels.
Entity -
The simplest forumla unit of a compound.
Exothermic -
Describes a reaction in which heat is given out as the reactants change to products - the temperature thus rises.
A
Activation Energy -
The minimum energy that a particle needs in order to react: the energy (enthalpy) difference between the reactants and the transition state.
Aldehyde -
An organic compound with the general formula RCHO in which there is a C=O double bond.
Allotropes -
Pure elements which can exist in different physical forms in which their atoms are arranged differently. For example, diamond, graphite and buckminsterfullerene are allotropes of carbon.
Anions -
Negatively charged ions.
Atomic Number (Proton Number) -
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Also the order of an element in the Periodic Table.
Average Bond Enthalpy -
The amount of enthalpy (energy) that has to be put in to break a specicfied chemical bond. It is an average value for the specified bond in a number of different compounds.
B
Biodegradeable -
A substances is biodegradeable if it breaks down naturally in the environment under the action of microorganisms, enzymes etc
C
Calorimeter -
An instrument for measuring the heat changes that accompany chemical reactions.
Carbanion -
An organic ion in which one of the carbon atoms has a negative charge.
Carbocation -
An organic ion in which one of the carbon atoms has a positive charge.
Carboxylic Acids -
Organic compounds with the general formula RCOOH in which there is a C=O double bond and an -OH group on the same carbon atom.
Catalytic Cracking -
The breaking, with the aid of a catalyst, of long-chain alkane molecules (obtained from crude oil) into shorter chain hydrocarbons, some of which are alkenes.
Cations -
Positively charged ions.
Chain Reaction -
A reaction with several steps involving free radicals.
Complex Ions -
Ions with more than one atom covalently bonded together.
Coordinate Bonding -
Covalnet bonding in which both the electrons in the bond come from one of the atoms in the bond (also called dative covalent bonding).
Cracking -
The breaking of long-chain alkane molecules (obtained from crude oil) into shorter chain hydrocarbons, some of which are alkenes.
Covalent Bonding -
A type of bonding between non-metal atoms that is the result of electrons being shared between the atoms.
D
Dative Covalent Bonding -
Covalent bonding in which both the electrons in the bond come from one of the atoms in the bond (also called coordinate bonding).
Disproportionation -
Describes a redox reaction in which the oxidation number of some atoms of a particular element increases and that of other atomsof the same element decreases.
E
Electron -
A negatively charged sub-atomic particle that is found at some distance from the nucleas of an atoms.
Electron Pair Repulsion Theory -
A theory which explains the shapes of simple molecules by assuming that groups of electrons around a central atom repel each other and thus take up positions as far away as posible from each other in space.
Electronegativity -
The ability of an atom to attract the electrons in covalent bonds towards itself.
Electrophile -
A reagent that attacks electron-rich areas in an organic molecule (such as carbon-carbon double bond).
Electrostatic Forces -
The forces of attraction and repulsion between electrically charged particles.
Elimination Reaction -
A reaction in which a small molecule such as water or hydrogen chloride is ejected from the reactants.
Empirical Formula -
The simplest whole number ratio in which the atoms in a compound combine together.
Endothermic -
Describes a reaction in which heat is taken in as the reactants change to products - the temperature thus drops.
Energy Density -
Describes the amount of energy stored per kilogram by a fuel. This energy can be released by burning the fuel.
Enthalpy Diagrams -
Diagrams in which the enthalpies (energies) of the reactants and products of a chemical reaction are plotted on a vertical scale to show their relative levels.
Entity -
The simplest forumla unit of a compound.
Exothermic -
Describes a reaction in which heat is given out as the reactants change to products - the temperature thus rises.
Evaluation Issues
These are some of the evaluation issues you should know for Psychology.
A
Androcentric Bias -
Where the researchers study a male only sample, and then generalise it to females.
Applications to Everyday Life -
Do the results apply to everyday life? (links to Usefulness)
C
Control of Variables -
How controlled is the study? Are there any outside factors influencing the results?
D
Demand Characteristics -
Participents pick up on situational/experimental factors and change their behaviour/answers to fit what they think the experimenter wants to see/hear
Deception -
Decieving the participents/subjects
E
Ethics -
A set of rules designed to distinguish between right and wrong
Ethnocentrism -
Being unable to conceptualise or imagine ideas, social beliefs, or the world from any viewpoint other than that of one's own particular culture or social group.
The belief that one's own ethnic group, nation, religion, scout troop, or football team is superior to all others.
Ecological Validity -
A way of assessing how valid a measure or test is, which is concerned with whether the measure or test is really like its counterpart in the real, everyday world.
F
Field Experiment -
A study that follows the logic of the experimental process, but is conducted in the outside world rather than the laboratory.
G
Gynocentric Bias -
Researchers use an all female sample and then generalise it to males.
Generalisabilty -
Can research be applied to the general population?
H
Holistic -
Treating its subject matter as a coherent and indivisable unit.
I
Inter-observer Reliability -
A phrase which describes the extent to which 2 independant observers agree on the observations that they have made.
Individual Differences -
The study and measurement of the significant ways indviduals differ from each other
L
Lab Experiment -
An experiment carried out in an artifical, lab environment.
Longitudinal Study -
A study which monitors changes occuring over a period of time
N
Nomothetic -
Concerned with the formation of general laws, normally of behaviour.
Nature/Nurture -
Nature - The inheritance of abilities or chracteristics
Nurture - Learning or the effect of environmental factors
Nature of Participents -
Describes who was used, the response rates etc
Q
Qualitative Data -
Data which describes meaning and experience rather than providing numerical values for behaviour such as frequency counts (Remember Quality).
Quantitative Data -
Data which focusses on numbers and frequencies rather than on meanings or experience (Remember Quantity).
R
Reinforcement -
Any consequence of any behaviour which increases the probablity of that behaviour re-occurring in simialr circumstances.
Reliability -
If the study was replicated, how likely is it that it would produce the same results?
Reductionism -
Reudes complex behaviour into something much, much simpler.
Response Bias -
The tendency that subjects have to produce experimental responses which are socially desirable, or that they think the experimenter expects.
S
Situational Attribution -
A reason for an act or behaviour which imples it occurred as a result of the situation or circumstances that the person was in at the time.
V
Validity -
How far a given measure assess what it is intended to measure.
Surface Validity -
How far the measure seems appropriate.
Criterion Validity -
The measure being used is compared with another measure or standard that assess the same thing.
Construct Validity -
How far the measure being examined truely presents the theoretical construct which it is supposed to measure.
A
Androcentric Bias -
Where the researchers study a male only sample, and then generalise it to females.
Applications to Everyday Life -
Do the results apply to everyday life? (links to Usefulness)
C
Control of Variables -
How controlled is the study? Are there any outside factors influencing the results?
D
Demand Characteristics -
Participents pick up on situational/experimental factors and change their behaviour/answers to fit what they think the experimenter wants to see/hear
Deception -
Decieving the participents/subjects
E
Ethics -
A set of rules designed to distinguish between right and wrong
Ethnocentrism -
Being unable to conceptualise or imagine ideas, social beliefs, or the world from any viewpoint other than that of one's own particular culture or social group.
The belief that one's own ethnic group, nation, religion, scout troop, or football team is superior to all others.
Ecological Validity -
A way of assessing how valid a measure or test is, which is concerned with whether the measure or test is really like its counterpart in the real, everyday world.
F
Field Experiment -
A study that follows the logic of the experimental process, but is conducted in the outside world rather than the laboratory.
G
Gynocentric Bias -
Researchers use an all female sample and then generalise it to males.
Generalisabilty -
Can research be applied to the general population?
H
Holistic -
Treating its subject matter as a coherent and indivisable unit.
I
Inter-observer Reliability -
A phrase which describes the extent to which 2 independant observers agree on the observations that they have made.
Individual Differences -
The study and measurement of the significant ways indviduals differ from each other
L
Lab Experiment -
An experiment carried out in an artifical, lab environment.
Longitudinal Study -
A study which monitors changes occuring over a period of time
N
Nomothetic -
Concerned with the formation of general laws, normally of behaviour.
Nature/Nurture -
Nature - The inheritance of abilities or chracteristics
Nurture - Learning or the effect of environmental factors
Nature of Participents -
Describes who was used, the response rates etc
Q
Qualitative Data -
Data which describes meaning and experience rather than providing numerical values for behaviour such as frequency counts (Remember Quality).
Quantitative Data -
Data which focusses on numbers and frequencies rather than on meanings or experience (Remember Quantity).
R
Reinforcement -
Any consequence of any behaviour which increases the probablity of that behaviour re-occurring in simialr circumstances.
Reliability -
If the study was replicated, how likely is it that it would produce the same results?
Reductionism -
Reudes complex behaviour into something much, much simpler.
Response Bias -
The tendency that subjects have to produce experimental responses which are socially desirable, or that they think the experimenter expects.
S
Situational Attribution -
A reason for an act or behaviour which imples it occurred as a result of the situation or circumstances that the person was in at the time.
V
Validity -
How far a given measure assess what it is intended to measure.
Surface Validity -
How far the measure seems appropriate.
Criterion Validity -
The measure being used is compared with another measure or standard that assess the same thing.
Construct Validity -
How far the measure being examined truely presents the theoretical construct which it is supposed to measure.
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